In vitro effects of Pilocarpus microphyllus extracts and pilocarpine hydrochloride on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

The aim of this study was to assess the activity of aqueous (AE) and ethanolic extracts (EE) and pilocarpine hydrochloride, which were extracted and isolated from Pilocarpus microphyllus (Jaborandi), respectively, on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was performed to quantify these compounds. Larval packet and adult immersion tests were conducted with different concentrations. Five AE and EE concentrations, ranging from 6.2 to 100.0 mg mL?1, and six concentrations of pilocarpine hydrochloride, ranging from 0.7 to 24.0 mg mL?1, were tested. The lethal concentration (LC50) of each extract for larvae and engorged females was calculated through Probit analysis. The concentration of pilocarpine hydrochloride obtained from the EE and the AE was 1.3 and 0.3% (m/m), respectively. Pilocarpine hydrochloride presented the highest acaricidal activity on larvae (LC50 2.6 mg mL?1) and engorged females (LC50 11.8 mg mL?1) of R.(B.) microplus, followed by the EE which presented LC50 of 56.4 and 15.9 mg mL?1, for larvae and engorged females, respectively. Such results indicate that pilocarpine hydrochloride has acaricidal activity, and may be the primary compound responsible for this activity by P. microphyllus EE.

Comparação de técnicas utilizadas in vitro para estimativa da eclosão de larvas de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

2016

Parâmetros reprodutivos de fêmeas de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus obtidas de bovinos tratados com homeopatia (resultados preliminares).

2016

Gene expression evidence for off-target effects caused by RNA interference-mediated gene silencing of Ubiquitin-63E in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus.

Knowledge of cattle tick (Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus; Acari: Ixodidae) molecular and cellular pathways has been hampered by the lack of an annotated genome. In addition, most of the tick expressed sequence tags (ESTs) available to date consist of similar to 50% unassigned sequences without predicted functions. The most common approach to address this has been the application of RNA interference (RNAi) methods to investigate genes and their pathways. This approach has been widely adopted in tick research despite minimal knowledge of the tick RNAi pathway and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) uptake mechanisms. A strong knockdown phenotype of adult female ticks had previously been observed using a 594 bp dsRNA targeting the cattle tick homologue for the Drosophila Ubiquitin-63E gene leading to nil or deformed eggs. A NimbleGen cattle tick custom microarray based on the BmiGI.V2 database of R. microplus ESTs was used to evaluate the expression of mRNAs harvested from ticks treated with the tick Ubiquitin-63E 594 bp dsRNA compared with controls. A total of 144 ESTs including TC6372 (Ubiquitin-63E) were down-regulated with 136 ESTs up-regulated following treatment. The results obtained substantiated the knockdown phenotype with ESTs identified as being associated with ubiquitin proteolysis as well as oogenesis, embryogenesis, fatty acid synthesis and stress responses. A bioinformatics analysis was undertaken to predict off-target effects (OTE) resulting from the in silico dicing of the 594 bp Ubiquitin-63E dsRNA which identified 10 down-regulated ESTs (including TC6372) within the list of differentially expressed probes on the microarrays. Subsequent knockdown experiments utilising 196 and 109 bp dsRNAs, and a cocktail of short hairpin RNAs (shRNA) targeting Ubiquitin-63E, demonstrated similar phenotypes for the dsRNAs but nil effect following shRNA treatment. Quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR analysis confirmed differential expression of TC6372 and selected ESTs. Our study demonstrated the minimisation of predicted OTEs in the shorter dsRNA treatments (similar to 100-200 bp) and the usefulness of microarrays to study knockdown phenotypes.

Rhipicephalus microplus serine protease inhibitor family: annotation, expression and functional characterisation assessment

Background: Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus evades the host's haemostatic system through a complex protein array secreted into tick saliva. Serine protease inhibitors (serpins) conform an important component of saliva which are represented by a large protease inhibitor family in Ixodidae. These secreted and non-secreted inhibitors modulate diverse and essential proteases involved in different physiological processes. Methods: The identification of R. microplus serpin sequences was performed through a web-based bioinformatics environment called Yabi. The database search was conducted on BmiGi V1, BmiGi V2.1, five SSH libraries, Australian tick transcriptome libraries and RmiTR V1 using bioinformatics methods. Semi quantitative PCR was carried out using different adult tissues and tick development stages. The cDNA of four identified R. microplus serpins were cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris in order to determine biological targets of these serpins utilising protease inhibition assays. Results: A total of four out of twenty-two serpins identified in our analysis are new R. microplus serpins which were named as RmS-19 to RmS-22. The analyses of DNA and predicted amino acid sequences showed high conservation of the R. microplus serpin sequences. The expression data suggested ubiquitous expression of RmS except for RmS-6 and RmS-14 that were expressed only in nymphs and adult female ovaries, respectively. RmS-19, and -20 were expressed in all tissues samples analysed showing their important role in both parasitic and non-parasitic stages of R. microplus development. RmS-21 was not detected in ovaries and RmS-22 was not identified in ovary and nymph samples but were expressed in the rest of the samples analysed. A total of four expressed recombinant serpins showed protease specific inhibition for Chymotrypsin (RmS-1 and RmS-6), Chymotrypsin / Elastase (RmS-3) and Thrombin (RmS-15). Conclusion: This study constitutes an important contribution and improvement to the knowledge about the physiologic role of R. microplus serpins during the host-tick interaction.

Selection of an ivermectin-resistant strain of Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Brazil

Resistance to ivermectin (IVM) in field Populations of Rhipicephalus microplus of Brazil has been observed since 2001 In this work, four selection methods (infestations with: (I) IVM-treated larvae, (2) larvae from IVM-treated adult female ticks, (3) larvae from IVM-treated adult female ticks on an IVM-treated host, and (4) larvae obtained from W-treated females that produced eggs with a high eclosion rate) were used oil a field population with an initial ivermectin (IVM) resistance ratio at LC50 (RR50) of 1 37 with the objective to obtain experimentally a highly-resistant strain After ten generations, using these methods combined, the final RR50 was 8 06 This work shows for the first time that it was possible to increase IVM resistance in R. microplus in laboratory conditions. The establishment of a drug resistant R microplus strain is a fundamental first step for further research into the mechanisms of ivermectin-resistance in R. microplus and potentially methods to control this resistance (C) 2009 Elsevier B V All rights reserved

Influence of the physiological state on infestation by Rhipicephalus microplus in dairy cows

The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of physiological state, season, breed, number of lactations, dairy productivity, and stocking rate on infestation by Rhipicephalus microplus in dairy cows. Two hundred cows were selected through proportional representative sampling at the Seropédica Experimental Station (Pesagro-Rio), Brazil. Fully or partially engorged R. microplus females measuring between 4.5 and 8.0. mm were counted on the right side of each animal. The tick infestation prevalence data were analyzed in relation to the risk factors, using multiple logistic regression. Associations between prevalence and its possible influencing determinants were measured using odds ratios. The average tick count of cows during the peripartum and lactation periods was significantly higher (p<0.05; OR=4.82) than the count in dry cows. Taurine animals showed significantly higher infestation (p<0.05; OR=3.28) than pure zebuine animals. Among cross-bred animals, the infestation was higher (p<0.05) in F1 animals (1/2 taurine × 1/2 zebuine) than in Girolando animals (5/8 zebuine × 3/8 taurine). Primiparous cows (p<0.05) had significantly heavier infestations than multiparous cows. Dairy production showed a positive correlation with tick infestation (p<0.03; OR=2.94), such that the most productive animals were the most parasitized ones. Animals kept at high densities were significantly more heavily infested (p<0.05, OR=6.32) than animals kept at low density. First-lactation and high-productivity taurine animals were more vulnerable to R. microplus, thus comprising a high-risk group in dairy herds. © 2012 Elsevier GmbH.

A comparison of three different methodologies for evaluating Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) rnicroplus susceptibility to topical spray compounds

This study aimed to compare three different methodologies (Adult Immersion Tests, field trials with naturally infected animals, and a Stall Test using artificially infested cattle) to evaluate the efficacy of two topical formulations that we administered as whole body sprays (15% Cypermethrin + 30% Chlorpyriphos + 15% Fenthion-Colosso (R) FC 30, Ouro Fino Agronegocios; and 60% Dichlorvos + 20% Chlorpyriphos-Ectofos (R), Vallee Saude Animal Ltd.), against a susceptible strain of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. To achieve this objective, two natural infestation trials were conducted, as well as two artificial infestation trials (Stall Tests) and two Adult Immersion Tests (AIT). The AIT results showed that both spray formulations achieved 100% efficacy against R. (B.) micro plus fully engorged females. However, when observing results obtained by field trials (natural infestations) and Stall Tests, none of these topically applied compounds reached 100% efficacy or affected the reproductive capacity of the fully engorged female ticks. Additional studies must be conducted to compare these in vivo methodologies with different in vitro techniques, such as the Larval Packet Test. However, based on results obtained here, we can conclude that depending on the spray formulations used, the AIT can overestimate acaricidal efficacy and values of reproductive efficiency of such compounds against R (B.) micro plus. Specifically, when dealing with spray formulations in the Stall Tests, the period of residual action can increase because these animals are sheltered from contact with environmental factors that might interfere with the efficacy of the products tested. It may be necessary to take in vivo trial results into consideration (such as field trials with naturally infested animals or Stall Tests) to standardize a specific in vitro assay, such as the Adult Immersion Test. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Applicability of in vitro bioassays for the diagnosis of ivermectin resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The applicability of laboratory bioassays to diagnose ivermectin (IVM) resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus was evaluated. Adult immersion tests (AITs), larval immersion tests (LITs) and larval packet tests (LPTs) were performed to characterise the effects of ivermectin toxicity on adults and larvae of a susceptible reference strain. The AIT was determined to be a reasonable assay but requires a large number of individuals to attain interpretable results. The LIT and LPT were validated with an IVM resistant strain, revealing resistance ratios (RRs) of 6.73 and 1.49, respectively. In a field survey, nine different populations of cattle tick from the states of Sao Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, were analysed with the LIT. Populations without previous exposure to ivermectin exhibited RRs between 0.87 and 1.01. Populations previously exposed to IVM showed RRs between 1.83 and 4.62. The LIT was more effective at discriminating between resistant and susceptible populations than the LPT. The use of the LIT is recommended for the diagnosis of ivermectin resistance in R microplus. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Productivity and health effects of anaplasmosis and babesiosis on Bos indicus cattle and their crosses, and the effects of differing intensity of tick control in Australia

Tick fever is an important disease of cattle where Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus acts as a vector for the three causal organisms Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale. Bos indicus cattle and their crosses are more resistant to the clinical effects of infection with B. bovis and B. bigemina than are Bos taurus cattle. Resistance is not complete, however, and herds of B. indicus-cross cattle are still at risk of babesiosis in environments where exposure to B. bovis is light in most years but occasionally high. The susceptibility of B. indicus cattle and their crosses to infection with A. marginale is similar to that of B. taurus cattle. In herds of B. indicus cattle and their crosses the infection rate of Babesia spp. and A. marginale is lowered because fewer ticks are likely to attach per day due to reduced numbers of ticks in the field (long-term effect on population, arising from high host resistance) and because a smaller proportion of ticks that do develop to feed on infected cattle will in turn be infected (due to lower parasitaemia). As a consequence, herds of B. indicus cattle are less likely than herds of B. taurus cattle to have high levels of population immunity to babesiosis or anaplasmosis. The effects of acaricide application on the probability of clinical disease due to anaplasmosis and babesiosis are unpredictable and dependent on the prevalence of infection in ticks and in cattle at the time of application. Attempting to manipulate population immunity through the toleration of specific threshold numbers of ticks with the aim of controlling tick fever is not reliable and the justification for acaricide application should be for the control of ticks rather than for tick fever. Vaccination of B. indicus cattle and their crosses is advisable in all areas where ticks exist, although vaccination against B. bigemina is probably not essential in pure B. indicus animals.

Expression of intracellular calcium signalling genes in cattle skin during tick infestation

It is widely acknowledged that changes in intracellular calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration provide dynamic signals that control a plethora of cellular processes, including triggering and mediating host defence mechanisms. In this study, quantitative real-time PCR was used to analyse gene expression of 14 Ca2+ signalling proteins in skin obtained from high tick-resistant (HR) and low tick-resistant (LR) cattle following artificial challenge with cattle tick (Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus). Up-regulation of numerous genes was observed in both HR and LR skin following tick challenge, however substantially higher transcription activation was found in HR tissue. The elevated expression in HR skin of specific Ca2+ signalling genes such as AHNAK, CASQ, IL2, NFAT2CIP and PLCG1 may be related to host resistance. Our data suggest that Ca2+ and its associated proteins might play an important role in host response to ticks and that further investigation is warranted.

Estudio epidemiólogico de la prevalencia e identificación de garrapatas en el ganado bovino del municipio de San Pedro de Lóvago - Chontales

El presente estudio se realizó con el objetivo determinar la prevalencia e identificación de las principales especies de garrapatas que afectan el ganado bovino en las fincas del Municipio de San Pedro de Lóvago –Chontales, El municipio se localiza entre las coordenadas 12º 07 ́ latitud norte y 85º07 ́ latitud oeste. La altitud promedio es de 340 msnm. La temperatura promedio anual oscila entre los 25 y 26ºC; su precipitación pluvial varía entre los 1,200 y 1,400mm al año. Se realizó un estudio observacional de tipo transversal. Para determinar el tamaño de la muestra se utilizó la formula de Martin et al. (1987) y Trusfield, (1995) donde plantean que N = 1,962* p*q / L2, donde p es la prevalencia, q = 1 – p y L especifica el límite deseado de error de la prevalencia. Se espera que la prevalencia (p) de 50% sea usada en combinación con él límite deseado de error de 14%, si la prevalencia en la población entera es desconocida. Y cuando la población de bovinos está comprendida entre los rangos de 2,807 a 7,480 individuos de la población. El tamaño requerido de la muestra de éste trabajo, fue de 2,958 animales de 52 fincas en producción de toda la zona en estudio distribuida en 16 comarcas. Los resultados obtenidos con relación a la prevalencia de garrapatas en bovinos de un total de 2,958 animales, 1,088 animales resultaron positivos representando el 37 % y 1,870 negativos para un 63%. Las garrapatas identificadas son de la familia Ixodidae de las especies Boophilus microplus Canestrini, (1887) y Amblyoma canjennense Fabricius (1787). El área anatómica de predilección de las garrapatas en el cuerpo del animal fue la región inguinal, seguida por la vulva, la tabla del cuello y la región toráxica.

Identificacion de las principales especies de garrapatas que afectan al ganado bovino en el municipio de Mulukuku, RAAN

El presente estudio se realizó con el objetivo de identificar las principales especies de garrapatas y las regiones corporales afectadas que afectan el ganado bovino; este estudio fue realizado en 20 fincas del municipio de Mulukukú- RAAN, el cual se localiza entre las coordenadas 85° 05' latitud norte y 13° 07' latitud oeste. La altitud promedio es de 240 msnm. La temperatura promedio anual 26"; su precipitación pluvial varía entre 2000 - 2200 msnm al año. Se realizó un estudio observacional y no de intervención. La investigación se realizó en visitas a las fincas con intervalos de 13 días. Las 20 fincas fueron seleccionadas con criterios de conveniencia y se ubican en cuatros comunidades del municipio de mulukukú. Se muestrearon un total de 152 bovinos de diferentes edades, sexo y estados fisiológicos. Las garrapatas identificadas en mulukuku son de la familia Ixodidae de las especie Boophilus microplus Canestrini, (1887) y Amblyoma Canjennense, Fabricius (1787). Predominando el Boophilus microplus con 66.4% y luego Amblyoma Canjennense con un 33.5% en los animales muestreados. El área de mayor predilección de la especie Boophilus microplus en el cuerpo animal, fue el cuello y, del Amblioma Cajennense la región inguinal.

Diagnóstico da resistência do carrapato-do-boi a carrapaticidas em Mato Grosso do Sul.

No Brasil, casos de resistência do carrapato-do-boi [Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus] aos acaricidas organofosforados têm sido relatados a partir do início dos anos de 1970 e, aos piretróides, no fi nal dos anos de 1980. Desde então, as reclamações de produtores quanto a esse problema vêm se avolumando em todas as regiões pecuárias. Por isso, torna-se importante conhecer bem a real situação de sua resistência e caracterizar adequadamente seu controle a fi m de torná-lo mais efi ciente e reduzir seu custo. Este estudo objetivou avaliar a suscetibilidade de populações de R. (B.) microplus em relação a acaricidas de distintas classes e caracterizar seu controle no Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul. Para tanto, foram realizados bioensaios toxicológicos com carrapatos obtidos em bovinos de propriedades de gado de corte e de leite em onze das principais regiões produtivas do Estado: Três Lagoas, Dourados, Alto Taquari, Iguatemi, Baixo Pantanal, Campo Grande, Bodoquena, Paranaíba, Aquidauana, Nova Andradina e Cassilândia. A escolha das propriedades amostradas priorizou aquelas com histórico de problemas críticos no controle químico dos carrapatos, mas, na ausência deles em condições de realizar os testes com tal precedente histórico, as fazendas foram escolhidas por consulta conforme a disponibilidade de carrapatos. Nos testes de suscetibilidade foi utilizada a técnica de imersão de teleóginas (cinco minutos), com posterior avaliação de parâmetros biológicos. Na imersão foram utilizados doze acaricidas comerciais (totalizando sete princípios ativos pertencentes a quatro classes distintas): amitraz; diazinon; cipermetrina; clorpirifós + cipermetrina + citronelal; diclorvós (DDVP) + clorfenvinfós; cimiazole + cipermetrina; etion + cipermetrina; DDVP + clorpirifós; clorpirifós + cipermetrina; cipermetrina + clorpirifós + butóxido de piperonila + citronelal e cipermetrina + clorfenvinfós. Após a imersão (lotes de no mínimo 10 teleóginas por produto), as teleóginas foram secas e mantidas em câmara climatizada por 30 dias para a avaliação de parâmetros reprodutivos, tais como: peso da postura (no 16o dia), taxa de eclosão e efi ciência reprodutiva (no 40o dia). Foram considerados eficazes os produtos cuja efi cácia foi igual ou superior a 95%, critério este estabelecido pelo Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (Mapa) para o registro de novos produtos. Em todas as propriedades foi verificada resistência a pelo menos um produto carrapaticida, havendo diversas propriedades com resistência de até 100% a um ou mais princípios ativos. Constatou-se que a efi cácia dos produtos piretróides nas populações amostradas foi, em geral, inferior a 70%, não sendo recomendado seu uso nas propriedades visitadas. Dentre os doze produtos avaliados, apenas dois produtos, DDVP 60% + clorfenvinfós 20% (97,68%) e Cipermetrina 15% + clorpirifós 25% + butóxido de piperonila 15% + citronelal 1% (100%), apresentaram efi cácia média superior a 95% e devem controlar satisfatoriamente as infestações pelo carrapato em condições de campo. Paralelamente, observou-se que os pecuaristas utilizam, também, produtos não autorizados ou sem registro ofi cial e efetuam diferentes combinações de produtos a seu dispor, incluindo produtos caseiros ou específi cos para uso agrícola, em função da ausência de um programa nacional de controle do carrapato bovino.

TICK INNATE IMMUNITY

Ticks are blood feeding parasites transmitting a wide variety of pathogens to their vertebrate hosts. The vector competence of ticks is tightly linked with their immune system. Despite its importance, our knowledge of tick innate immunity is still inadequate and the limited number of sufficiently characterized immune molecules and cellular reactions are dispersed across numerous tick species. The phagocytosis of microbes by tick hemocytes seems to be coupled with a primitive complement-like system, which possibly involves self/nonself recognition by fibrinogen-related lectins and the action of thioester-containing proteins. Ticks do not seem to possess a pro-phenoloxidase system leading to melanization and also coagulation of tick hemolymph has not been experimentally proven. They are capable of defending themselves against microbial infection with a variety of antimicrobial peptides comprising lysozymes, defensins and molecules not found in other invertebrates. Virtually nothing is known about the signaling cascades involved in the regulation of tick antimicrobial immune responses. Midgut immunity is apparently the decisive factor of tick vector competence. The gut content is a hostile environment for ingested microbes, which is mainly due to the antimicrobial activity of hemoglobin fragments generated by the digestion of the host blood as well as other antimicrobial peptides. Reactive oxygen species possibly also play an important role in the tick-pathogen interaction. The recent release of the Ixodes scapularis genome and the feasibility of RNA interference in ticks promise imminent and substantial progress in tick innate immunity research.