Theta burst TMS increases cerebral blood flow in the primary motor cortex during motor performance as assessed by arterial spin labeling (ASL)

Theta burst stimulation (TBS) is a novel variant of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), which induces changes in neuronal excitability persisting up to 1h. When elicited in the primary motor cortex, such physiological modulations might also have an impact on motor behavior. In the present study, we applied TBS in combination with pseudo continuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL) in order to address the question of whether TBS effects are measurable by means of changes in physiological parameters such as cerebral blood flow (CBF) and if TBS-induced plasticity can modify motor behavior. Twelve right-handed healthy subjects were stimulated using an inhibitory TBS protocol at subthreshold stimulation intensity targeted over the right motor cortex. The control condition consisted of within-subject Sham treatment in a crossover design. PCASL was performed before (pre TBS/pre Sham) and immediately after treatment (post TBS/post Sham). During the pCASL runs, the subjects performed a sequential fingertapping task with the left hand at individual maximum speed. There was a significant increase of CBF in the primary motor cortex after TBS, but not after Sham. It is assumed that inhibitory TBS induced a "local virtual lesion" which leads to the mobilization of more neuronal resources. There was no TBS-specific modulation in motor behavior, which might indicate that acute changes in brain plasticity caused by TBS are immediately compensated. This compensatory reaction seems to be observable at the metabolic, but not at the behavioral level.

Neural change following different memory training approaches in very preterm born children - A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE There is mixed evidence regarding neural change following cognitive training. Brain activation increase, decrease, or a combination of both may occur. We investigated training-induced neural change using two different memory training approaches. METHODS Very preterm born children (aged 7-12 years) were randomly allocated to a memory strategy training, an intensive working memory practice or a waiting control group. Before and immediately after the trainings and the waiting period, brain activation during a visual working memory task was measured using fMRI and cognitive performance was assessed. RESULTS Following both memory trainings, there was a significant decrease of fronto-parietal brain activation and a significant increase of memory performance. In the control group, no neural or performance change occurred after the waiting period. CONCLUSION These pilot data point towards a training-related decrease of brain activation, independent of the training approach. Our data highlight the high training-induced plasticity of the child's brain during development.

Signal transduction of {\it HER-2\/}/{\it neu\/} receptor tyrosine kinase

Overexpression and/or amplification of HER2/neu is frequently detected in many human cancers. Activation of p185 tyrosine kinase can be achieved by point mutation, overexpression, deletion, and heterodimerization with other class I receptors. In this study I investigated the signal transduction pathways mediating the oncogenic signal of the point mutation-activated rat p185. I demonstrated that tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and formation of Shc/Grb2 complex correlated to the transformation of NIH3T3 cells caused by the point mutation-activated rat HER2/neu. Furthermore, I observed that association with Shc was severely impaired by deletion of most of the major autophosphorylation sites of the point-mutated p185. The truncated p185 product, however, fully retained its ability to transform NIH3T3 cells, induce Shc tyrosine phosphorylation and Shc/Grb2 complex formation. These results suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc which allows formation of Shc/Grb2 complex may play an important role in cell transformation induced by the point mutation-activated p185, and that stable binding to mutant p185 may not be necessary for Shc to mediate this signaling pathway.^ Recent studies have suggested that formation of the complex containing Sos, Grb2 and Shc is important in coupling receptor tyrosine kinases to the Ras signaling pathway. To clarify the role of this trimer in the oncogenic signaling of the activated p185, I set out to interfere with the protein-protein interactions in Shc/Grb2/Sos complex by introducing Grb2 mutants with deletions in either amino- ($\Delta$N-Grb2) or carboxyl- ($\Delta$C-Grb2) terminal SH3 domains into B104-1-1 cells derived from NIH3T3 cells that express the point mutation-activated HER-2/neu. I found that the transformed phenotypes of the B104-1-1 cells were largely reversed by expression of the $\Delta$N-Grb2. The effect of the $\Delta$C-Grb2 on phenotypic reversion was much weaker. Biochemical analysis showed that the $\Delta$N-Grb2 was able to associate Shc but not the activated p185 nor Sos, while the $\Delta$C-Grb2 bound to Shc, the activated p185, and Sos. The p185-mediated Ras activation was severely inhibited by the $\Delta$N-Grb2 but not the $\Delta$C-Grb2. Taken together, these data demonstrate that interruption of the interaction between Shc and the endogenous Grb2 by the $\Delta$N-Grb2 is able to impair the oncogenic signaling of the mutation-activated p185, indicating that (i) the $\Delta$N-Grb2 functions as a strong dominant-negative mutant, (ii) Shc/Grb2/Sos pathway plays a major role in mediating the oncogenic signal of the mutation-activated p185. Unlike the $\Delta$N-Grb2, the $\Delta$C-Grb2 appears to be a relatively weak dominant-negative mutant, probably due to its ability to largely fulfill the biological functions of the wild-type Grb2. ^

Fabrication of luminescent nanostructures by electron-beam direct writing of PMMA resist

We report on the conversion of non-luminescent conventional poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA)-based electron-beam resists into luminescent materials when used as negative-tone resists, that is, when exposed to high electron irradiation doses. Raman spectroscopy reveals the chemical transformation induced by electron irradiation which is responsible for the observed luminescence in the visible (blue) region. The emission intensity from exposed PMMA-based patterns can be controlled by the electron irradiation dose employed to create them.

The Akt kinase: Molecular determinants of oncogenicity

The serine-threonine kinase Akt is a downstream target of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase); it is activated by the phosphoinositide 3-phosphate-dependent kinases PDK1 and PDK2. Certain mutated forms of Akt induce oncogenic transformation in chicken embryo fibroblast cultures and hemangiosarcomas in young chickens. This ability to transform cells depends on localization of Akt at the plasma membrane and on the kinase activity of Akt. A transdominant negative form of Akt interferes with oncogenic transformation induced by the p3k oncogene, which codes for an activated form of PI 3-kinase. Akt is therefore an essential mediator of p3k-induced oncogenicity.

Plasticité du cortex visuel: «homéodynamie» des connexions neuronales et modèle d’effets d’antidépresseurs

Les informations sensorielles sont traitées dans le cortex par des réseaux de neurones co-activés qui forment des assemblées neuronales fonctionnelles. Le traitement visuel dans le cortex est régit par différents aspects des caractéristiques neuronales tels que l’aspect anatomique, électrophysiologique et moléculaire. Au sein du cortex visuel primaire, les neurones sont sélectifs à divers attributs des stimuli tels que l’orientation, la direction, le mouvement et la fréquence spatiale. Chacun de ces attributs conduit à une activité de décharge maximale pour une population neuronale spécifique. Les neurones du cortex visuel ont cependant la capacité de changer leur sélectivité en réponse à une exposition prolongée d’un stimulus approprié appelée apprentissage visuel ou adaptation visuelle à un stimulus non préférentiel. De ce fait, l’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’investiguer les mécanismes neuronaux qui régissent le traitement visuel durant une plasticité induite par adaptation chez des animaux adultes. Ces mécanismes sont traités sous différents aspects : la connectivité neuronale, la sélectivité neuronale, les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones et les effets des drogues (sérotonine et fluoxétine). Le modèle testé se base sur les colonnes d’orientation du cortex visuel primaire. La présente thèse est subdivisée en quatre principaux chapitres. Le premier chapitre (A) traite de la réorganisation du cortex visuel primaire suite à une plasticité induite par adaptation visuelle. Le second chapitre (B) examine la connectivité neuronale fonctionnelle en se basant sur des corrélations croisées entre paires neuronales ainsi que sur des corrélations d’activités de populations neuronales. Le troisième chapitre (C) met en liaison les aspects cités précédemment (les effets de l’adaptation visuelle et la connectivité fonctionnelle) aux propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones (deux classes de neurones sont traitées : les neurones à décharge régulière et les neurones à décharge rapide ou burst). Enfin, le dernier chapitre (D) a pour objectif l’étude de l’effet du couplage de l’adaptation visuelle à l’administration de certaines drogues, notamment la sérotonine et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Méthodes En utilisant des enregistrements extracellulaires d’activités neuronales dans le cortex visuel primaire (V1) combinés à un processus d’imagerie cérébrale optique intrinsèque, nous enregistrons l’activité de décharge de populations neuronales et nous examinons l’activité de neurones individuels extraite des signaux multi-unitaires. L’analyse de l’activité cérébrale se base sur différents algorithmes : la distinction des propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones se fait par calcul de l’intervalle de temps entre la vallée et le pic maximal du potentiel d’action (largeur du potentiel d’action), la sélectivité des neurones est basée sur leur taux de décharge à différents stimuli, et la connectivité fonctionnelle utilise des calculs de corrélations croisées. L’utilisation des drogues se fait par administration locale sur la surface du cortex (après une craniotomie et une durotomie). Résultats et conclusions Dans le premier chapitre, nous démontrons la capacité des neurones à modifier leur sélectivité après une période d’adaptation visuelle à un stimulus particulier, ces changements aboutissent à une réorganisation des cartes corticales suivant un patron spécifique. Nous attribuons ce résultat à la flexibilité de groupes fonctionnels de neurones qui étaient longtemps considérés comme des unités anatomiques rigides. En effet, nous observons une restructuration extensive des domaines d’orientation dans le but de remodeler les colonnes d’orientation où chaque stimulus est représenté de façon égale. Ceci est d’autant plus confirmé dans le second chapitre où dans ce cas, les cartes de connectivité fonctionnelle sont investiguées. En accord avec les résultats énumérés précédemment, les cartes de connectivité montrent également une restructuration massive mais de façon intéressante, les neurones utilisent une stratégie de sommation afin de stabiliser leurs poids de connectivité totaux. Ces dynamiques de connectivité sont examinées dans le troisième chapitre en relation avec les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones. En effet, deux modes de décharge neuronale permettent la distinction entre deux classes neuronales. Leurs dynamiques de corrélations distinctes suggèrent que ces deux classes jouent des rôles clés différents dans l’encodage et l’intégration des stimuli visuels au sein d’une population neuronale. Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre, l’adaptation visuelle est combinée avec l’administration de certaines substances, notamment la sérotonine (neurotransmetteur) et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Ces deux substances produisent un effet similaire en facilitant l’acquisition des stimuli imposés par adaptation. Lorsqu’un stimulus non optimal est présenté en présence de l’une des deux substances, nous observons une augmentation du taux de décharge des neurones en présentant ce stimulus. Nous présentons un modèle neuronal basé sur cette recherche afin d’expliquer les fluctuations du taux de décharge neuronale en présence ou en absence des drogues. Cette thèse présente de nouvelles perspectives quant à la compréhension de l’adaptation des neurones du cortex visuel primaire adulte dans le but de changer leur sélectivité dans un environnement d’apprentissage. Nous montrons qu’il y a un parfait équilibre entre leurs habiletés plastiques et leur dynamique d’homéostasie.

Plasticité du cortex visuel: «homéodynamie» des connexions neuronales et modèle d’effets d’antidépresseurs

Les informations sensorielles sont traitées dans le cortex par des réseaux de neurones co-activés qui forment des assemblées neuronales fonctionnelles. Le traitement visuel dans le cortex est régit par différents aspects des caractéristiques neuronales tels que l’aspect anatomique, électrophysiologique et moléculaire. Au sein du cortex visuel primaire, les neurones sont sélectifs à divers attributs des stimuli tels que l’orientation, la direction, le mouvement et la fréquence spatiale. Chacun de ces attributs conduit à une activité de décharge maximale pour une population neuronale spécifique. Les neurones du cortex visuel ont cependant la capacité de changer leur sélectivité en réponse à une exposition prolongée d’un stimulus approprié appelée apprentissage visuel ou adaptation visuelle à un stimulus non préférentiel. De ce fait, l’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’investiguer les mécanismes neuronaux qui régissent le traitement visuel durant une plasticité induite par adaptation chez des animaux adultes. Ces mécanismes sont traités sous différents aspects : la connectivité neuronale, la sélectivité neuronale, les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones et les effets des drogues (sérotonine et fluoxétine). Le modèle testé se base sur les colonnes d’orientation du cortex visuel primaire. La présente thèse est subdivisée en quatre principaux chapitres. Le premier chapitre (A) traite de la réorganisation du cortex visuel primaire suite à une plasticité induite par adaptation visuelle. Le second chapitre (B) examine la connectivité neuronale fonctionnelle en se basant sur des corrélations croisées entre paires neuronales ainsi que sur des corrélations d’activités de populations neuronales. Le troisième chapitre (C) met en liaison les aspects cités précédemment (les effets de l’adaptation visuelle et la connectivité fonctionnelle) aux propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones (deux classes de neurones sont traitées : les neurones à décharge régulière et les neurones à décharge rapide ou burst). Enfin, le dernier chapitre (D) a pour objectif l’étude de l’effet du couplage de l’adaptation visuelle à l’administration de certaines drogues, notamment la sérotonine et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Méthodes En utilisant des enregistrements extracellulaires d’activités neuronales dans le cortex visuel primaire (V1) combinés à un processus d’imagerie cérébrale optique intrinsèque, nous enregistrons l’activité de décharge de populations neuronales et nous examinons l’activité de neurones individuels extraite des signaux multi-unitaires. L’analyse de l’activité cérébrale se base sur différents algorithmes : la distinction des propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones se fait par calcul de l’intervalle de temps entre la vallée et le pic maximal du potentiel d’action (largeur du potentiel d’action), la sélectivité des neurones est basée sur leur taux de décharge à différents stimuli, et la connectivité fonctionnelle utilise des calculs de corrélations croisées. L’utilisation des drogues se fait par administration locale sur la surface du cortex (après une craniotomie et une durotomie). Résultats et conclusions Dans le premier chapitre, nous démontrons la capacité des neurones à modifier leur sélectivité après une période d’adaptation visuelle à un stimulus particulier, ces changements aboutissent à une réorganisation des cartes corticales suivant un patron spécifique. Nous attribuons ce résultat à la flexibilité de groupes fonctionnels de neurones qui étaient longtemps considérés comme des unités anatomiques rigides. En effet, nous observons une restructuration extensive des domaines d’orientation dans le but de remodeler les colonnes d’orientation où chaque stimulus est représenté de façon égale. Ceci est d’autant plus confirmé dans le second chapitre où dans ce cas, les cartes de connectivité fonctionnelle sont investiguées. En accord avec les résultats énumérés précédemment, les cartes de connectivité montrent également une restructuration massive mais de façon intéressante, les neurones utilisent une stratégie de sommation afin de stabiliser leurs poids de connectivité totaux. Ces dynamiques de connectivité sont examinées dans le troisième chapitre en relation avec les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones. En effet, deux modes de décharge neuronale permettent la distinction entre deux classes neuronales. Leurs dynamiques de corrélations distinctes suggèrent que ces deux classes jouent des rôles clés différents dans l’encodage et l’intégration des stimuli visuels au sein d’une population neuronale. Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre, l’adaptation visuelle est combinée avec l’administration de certaines substances, notamment la sérotonine (neurotransmetteur) et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Ces deux substances produisent un effet similaire en facilitant l’acquisition des stimuli imposés par adaptation. Lorsqu’un stimulus non optimal est présenté en présence de l’une des deux substances, nous observons une augmentation du taux de décharge des neurones en présentant ce stimulus. Nous présentons un modèle neuronal basé sur cette recherche afin d’expliquer les fluctuations du taux de décharge neuronale en présence ou en absence des drogues. Cette thèse présente de nouvelles perspectives quant à la compréhension de l’adaptation des neurones du cortex visuel primaire adulte dans le but de changer leur sélectivité dans un environnement d’apprentissage. Nous montrons qu’il y a un parfait équilibre entre leurs habiletés plastiques et leur dynamique d’homéostasie.

Substantial changes in the genetic basis of tadpole morphology of Rana lessonae in the presence of predators

Predator-induced morphological plasticity is a model system for investigating phenotypic plasticity in an ecological context. We investigated the genetic basis of the predator-induced plasticity in Rana lessonae by determining the pattern of genetic covariation of three morphological traits that were found to be induced in a predatory environment. Body size decreased and tail dimensions increased when reared in the presence of preying dragonfly larvae. Genetic variance in body size increased by almost an order of magnitude in the predator environment, and the first genetic principal component was found to be highly significantly different between the two environments. The across environment genetic correlation for body size was significantly below 1 indicating that different genes contributed to this trait in the two environments. Body size may therefore be able to respond to selection independently in the two environments to some extent.

The mechanical properties and formability of dual-phase steel

In recent years dual phase steels comprising of 5-20% martensite in a ferrite matrix have come into the limelight of high strength cold formable steels because of their potential for vehicle weight saving. They show the following features: no yield point; relatively low initial flow stress; high initial workhardening rate; well sustained work hardening. As a consequence of these characteristics, dual phase steels exhibit a better combination of strength and elongation than other HSLA steels. In this thesis, a broad view of the factors which influence their properties is presented. Mechanical properties and forming ability of a commercially available dual phase steel and an AL-Si killed steel processed to dual phase form are investigated to ascertain the effect of their microstructure on their properties. It is found that the yield phenomena are masked by the transformation induced stresses present during processing and so yield point could be recovered under suitable ageing treatment; that apart from giving the above properties dual phasing gives rise to very low strain-rate sensitivity and a low R value ~ 1; that the mechanical response under rolling conditions is not different from those under tension; that there is a danger of damage to tooling during forming operations of these steels if fracture should precede instability as a result of grain size dependent strength found for these steels. It is also found that very little deformation of the martensite islands took place during deformation except at high strains. The work-hardening and the strength levels can be controlled by either decreasing the grain size or increasing the martensite volume fraction, but it is found that increasing martensite has a detrimental effect on ductility and the ductility and fracture strength can be controlled better by refining the grain size. A remarkable effect found in the dual phase steel tested is that the compressive strength is higher than the tensile strength. The reason for this observation is not yet clear but it is suggested that it might be due to the introduction of emissary type dislocations into the ferrite lattice as a result of twins formed in the martensite during transformation from austenite. The twins are envisaged to be {111} <112> in character.

Sensibilidade à mudança de trajetória de deformação no aço TWIP980

Resultante dos avanços tecnológicos, conseguiu-se obter um aço que elimina o paradigma de se aliar alta ductilidade e resistência mecânica. Assim foi desenvolvido durante a última década o aço TWIP, deformação induzida por maclação, tendo como principal mecanismo de deformação a maclação. Este presente trabalho teve como principal objetivo caraterizar o aço TWIP980 em três temáticas diferentes: química, mecânica e microestrutura. Na primeira temática, a química, esta teve como objetivo encontrar a designação do aço TWIP em estudo. Sendo apenas conhecida a direção de laminação, RD, e a empresa que forneceu as chapas, a POSCO, o objetivo era obter a sua designação. Através da comparação das curvas de tração encontradas para o material em estudo, e conjuntamente, com as diversas curvas de tração de vários aços TWIP da empresa POSCO, realizou-se a comparação. Visto ter-se ficado reduzido a dois possíveis aços TWIP, foi através de uma análise à composição química, EDS - Espectroscopia da energia dispersa por raios-X, que se concluiu que o aço em estudo era o TWIP980. Na caraterização mecânica, e através de ensaios de tração, foram estudadas propriedades como: o módulo de elasticidade, tensão limite elástico, ductilidade, anisotropia, coeficiente de encruamento e Poisson. Estas propriedades foram estudas para três mudanças na trajetória de deformação e quatro pré-deformações em estudo. Assim estudou-se a alteração de trajetória para os ângulos a 0º, 45º e 90º em relação a RD, para as deformações de engenharia de 0%, 10%, 20% e 30%. Por último, na análise à microestrutura, esta teve como objetivo obter valores para o tamanho de grão e de macla bem como as suas orientações cristalográficas. Também a densidade de deslocações e maclação para cada uma das 4 pré-deformações esteve em estudo. Estes parâmetros foram obtidos através de microscopia ótica, eletrónica de varrimento, MEV e eletrónica de transmissão, MET.

1-D constitutive model for evolution of stress-induced R-phase and localized Lüders-like stress-induced martensitic transformation of super-elastic NiTi wires

NiTi alloys have been widely used in the applications for micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS), which often involve some precise and complex motion control. However, when using the NiTi alloys in MEMS application, the main problem to be considered is the degradation of functional property during cycling loading. This also stresses the importance of accurate prediction of the functional behavior of NiTi alloys. In the last two decades, a large number of constitutive models have been proposed to achieve the task. A portion of them focused on the deformation behavior of NiTi alloys under cyclic loading, which is a practical and non-negligible situation. Despite of the scale of modeling studies of the field in NiTi alloys, two experimental observations under uniaxial tension loading have not received proper attentions. First, a deviation from linearity well before the stress-induced martensitic transformation (SIMT) has not been modeled. Recent experiments confirmed that it is caused by the formation of stress-induced R phase. Second, the influence of the well-known localized Lüders-like SIMT on the macroscopic behavior of NiTi alloys, in particular the residual strain during cyclic loading, has not been addressed. In response, we develop a 1-D phenomenological constitutive model for NiTi alloys with two novel features: the formation of stress-induced R phase and the explicit modeling of the localized Lüders-like SIMT. The derived constitutive relations are simple and at the same time sufficient to describe the behavior of NiTi alloys. The accumulation of residual strain caused by R phase under different loading schemes is accurately described by the proposed model. Also, the residual strain caused by irreversible SIMT at different maximum loading strain under cyclic tension loading in individual samples can be explained by and fitted into a single equation in the proposed model. These results show that the proposed model successfully captures the behavior of R phase and the essence of localized SIMT.

ACE research vignette 020: Entrepreneurial becoming - a self-induced transformation

This series of research vignettes is aimed at sharing current and interesting research findings from our team of international Entrepreneurship researchers. In this vignette, Dr Marcello Tonelli and Associate Professor Carol Dalglish consider the delivery of entrepreneurial education through experiential learning in a developing context.

Morphology changes and mechanistic aspects of the electrochemically-induced reversible solid-solid transformation of microcrystalline TCNQ into Co TCNQ 2-based materials (TCNQ= 7, 7, 8, 8-Tetracyanoquinodimethane)

The chemically reversible solid−solid phase transformation of a TCNQ-modified glassy carbon, indium tin oxide, or metal electrode into Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 material in the presence of Co2+(aq) containing electrolytes has been induced and monitored electrochemically. Voltammetric data reveal that the TCNQ/Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 interconversion process is independent of electrode material and identity of cobalt electrolyte anion. However, a marked dependence on electrolyte concentration, scan rate, and method of electrode modification (drop casting or mechanical attachment) is found. Cyclic voltammetric and double potential step chronoamperometric measurements confirm that formation of Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 occurs through a rate-determining nucleation and growth process that initially involves incorporation of Co2+(aq) ions into the reduced TCNQ crystal lattice at the TCNQ|electrode|electrolyte interface. Similarly, the reverse (oxidation) process, which involves transformation of solid Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 back to parent TCNQ crystals, also is controlled by nucleation−growth kinetics. The overall chemically reversible process that represents this transformation is described by the reaction:  2TCNQ0(s) + 2e- + Co2+(aq) + 2H2O \[Co(TCNQ)2(H2O)2](s). Ex situ SEM images illustrated that this reversible TCNQ/Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 conversion process is accompanied by drastic size and morphology changes in the parent solid TCNQ. In addition, different sizes of needle-shaped nanorod/nanowire crystals of Co\[TCNQ]2(H2O)2 are formed depending on the method of surface immobilization.

Androgen-targeted therapy-induced epithelial mesenchymal plasticity and neuroendocrine transdifferentiation in prostate cancer : an opportunity for intervention

Androgens regulate biological pathways to promote proliferation, differentiation, and survival of benign and malignant prostate tissue. Androgen receptor (AR) targeted therapies exploit this dependence and are used in advanced prostate cancer to control disease progression. Contemporary treatment regimens involve sequential use of inhibitors of androgen synthesis or AR function. Although targeting the androgen axis has clear therapeutic benefit, its effectiveness is temporary, as prostate tumor cells adapt to survive and grow. The removal of androgens (androgen deprivation) has been shown to activate both epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and neuroendocrine transdifferentiation (NEtD) programs. EMT has established roles in promoting biological phenotypes associated with tumor progression (migration/invasion, tumor cell survival, cancer stem cell-like properties, resistance to radiation and chemotherapy) in multiple human cancer types. NEtD in prostate cancer is associated with resistance to therapy, visceral metastasis, and aggressive disease. Thus, activation of these programs via inhibition of the androgen axis provides a mechanism by which tumor cells can adapt to promote disease recurrence and progression. Brachyury, Axl, MEK, and Aurora kinase A are molecular drivers of these programs, and inhibitors are currently in clinical trials to determine therapeutic applications. Understanding tumor cell plasticity will be important in further defining the rational use of androgen-targeted therapies clinically and provides an opportunity for intervention to prolong survival of men with metastatic prostate cancer.

Shaping development through mechanical strain: The transcriptional basis of diet-induced phenotypic plasticity in a cichlid fish

Adaptive phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to change its phenotype to match local environments, is increasingly recognized for its contribution to evolution. However, few empirical studies have explored the molecular basis of plastic traits. The East African cichlid fish Astatoreochromis alluaudi displays adaptive phenotypic plasticity in its pharyngeal jaw apparatus, a structure that is widely seen as an evolutionary key innovation that has contributed to the remarkable diversity of cichlid fishes. It has previously been shown that in response to different diets, the pharyngeal jaws change their size, shape and dentition: hard diets induce an adaptive robust molariform tooth phenotype with short jaws and strong internal bone structures, while soft diets induce a gracile papilliform tooth phenotype with elongated jaws and slender internal bone structures. To gain insight into the molecular underpinnings of these adaptations and enable future investigations of the role that phenotypic plasticity plays during the formation of adaptive radiations, the transcriptomes of the two divergent jaw phenotypes were examined. Our study identified a total of 187 genes whose expression differs in response to hard and soft diets, including immediate early genes, extracellular matrix genes and inflammatory factors. Transcriptome results are interpreted in light of expression of candidate genesmarkers for tooth size and shape, bone cells and mechanically sensitive pathways. This study opens up new avenues of research at new levels of biological organization into the roles of phenotypic plasticity during speciation and radiation of cichlid fishes.