Visual scanning in sports actions: comparison between soccer goalkeepers and judo fighters

Visual search and oculomotor behaviour are believed to be very relevant for athlete performance, especially for sports requiring refined visuo-motor coordination skills. Modern coaches believe that a correct visuo-motor strategy may be part of advanced training programs. In this thesis two experiments are reported in which gaze behaviour of expert and novice athletes were investigated while they were doing a real sport specific task. The experiments concern two different sports: judo and soccer. In each experiment, number of fixations, fixation locations and mean fixation duration (ms) were considered. An observational analysis was done at the end of the paper to see perceptual differences between near and far space. Purpose: The aim of the judo study was to delineate differences in gaze behaviour characteristics between a population of athletes and one of non athletes. Aspects specifically investigated were: search rate, search order and viewing time across different conditions in a real-world task. The second study was aimed at identifying gaze behaviour in varsity soccer goalkeepers while facing a penalty kick executed with instep and inside foot. Then an attempt has been done to compare the gaze strategies of expert judoka and soccer goalkeepers in order to delineate possible differences related to the different conditions of reacting to events occurring in near (peripersonal) or far (extrapersonal) space. Judo Methods: A sample of 9 judoka (black belt) and 11 near judoka (white belt) were studied. Eye movements were recorded at 500Hz using a video based eye tracker (EyeLink II). Each subject participated in 40 sessions for about 40 minutes. Gaze behaviour was considered as average number of locations fixated per trial, the average number of fixations per trial, and mean fixation duration. Soccer Methods: Seven (n = 7) intermediate level male volunteered for the experiment. The kickers and goalkeepers, had at least varsity level soccer experience. The vision-in-action (VIA) system (Vickers 1996; Vickers 2007) was used to collect the coupled gaze and motor behaviours of the goalkeepers. This system integrated input from a mobile eye tracking system (Applied Sciences Laboratories) with an external video of the goalkeeper’s saving actions. The goalkeepers took 30 penalty kicks on a synthetic pitch in accordance with FIFA (2008) laws. Judo Results: Results indicate that experts group differed significantly from near expert for fixations duration, and number of fixations per trial. The expert judokas used a less exhaustive search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration than their novice counterparts and focused on central regions of the body. The results showed that in defence and attack situation expert group did a greater number of transitions with respect to their novice counterpart. Soccer Results: We found significant main effect for the number of locations fixated across outcome (goal/save) but not for foot contact (instep/inside). Participants spent more time fixating the areas in instep than inside kick and in goal than in save situation. Mean and standard error in search strategy as a result of foot contact and outcome indicate that the most gaze behaviour start and finish on ball interest areas. Conclusions: Expert goalkeepers tend to spend more time in inside-save than instep-save penalty, differences that was opposite in scored penalty kick. Judo results show that differences in visual behaviour related to the level of expertise appear mainly when the test presentation is continuous, last for a relatively long period of time and present a high level of uncertainty with regard to the chronology and the nature of events. Expert judoist performers “anchor” the fovea on central regions of the scene (lapel and face) while using peripheral vision to monitor opponents’ limb movements. The differences between judo and soccer gaze strategies are discussed on the light of physiological and neuropsychological differences between near and far space perception.

Genetische Analyse des Somatostatin-Systems

Somatostatin ist ein Molekül mit multifunktinonellem Charakter, dem Neurotransmitter-, Neuromodulator- und (Neuro)-Hormoneigenschaften zugeschrieben werden. Gemäß seiner ubiquitären Verteilung in Geweben beeinflusst es Stoffwechsel- und Entwicklungsprozesse, bis hin zu Lern-und Gedächtnisleistungen. Diese Wirkungen resultieren aus dem lokalen und zeitlichen Zusammenspiel eines Liganden und fünf G-Protein gekoppelter Rezeptoren (SSTR1-5). Zur Charakterisierung der biologischen Bedeutung des Somatostatin-Systems im Gesamtorganismus wurde eine Mutationsanalyse einzelner Systemkomponenten durchgeführt. Sie umfaßte die Inaktivierung der Gene für das Somatostatin-Präpropeptid und die der Rezeptoren SSTR3 und SSTR4 durch Gene Targeting. Die entsprechenden Ausfallmutationen belegen: Weder die Rezeptoren 3 und 4, noch Somatostatin sind für das Überleben des Organismus unter Standardhaltungsbedingungen notwendig. Die entsprechenden Mauslinien zeigen keine unmittelbar auffälligen Einschränkungen ihrer Biologie. Die Somatostatin-Nullmaus wurde zum Hauptgegenstand einer detaillierten Untersuchung aufgrund der übergeordneten Position des Liganden in der Signalkaskade und verfügbaren Hinweisen zu seiner Funktion. Folgende Schlußfolgerungen konnten nach eingehender Analyse gezogen werden: Der Ausfall des Somatostatin-Gens hat erhöhte Plasmakonzentrationen an Wachstumshormon (GH) zur Konsequenz. Dies steht im Einklang mit der Rolle Somatostatins als hemmender Faktor der Wachstumshormon-Freisetzung, die in der Mutante aufgehoben ist. Durch die Somatostatin-Nullmaus wurde zudem deutlich: Somatostatin interagiert als wesentliches Bindeglied zwischen der Wachstums- und Streßachse. Permanent erhöhte Corticosteron-Werte in den Mutanten implizieren einen negativen tonischen Einfluß für die Sekretion von Glukocorticoiden in vivo. Damit zeigt die Knockout-Maus, daß Somatostatin normalerweise als ein entscheidendes inhibierendes Kontrollelement der Steroidfreisetzung fungiert. Verhaltensversuche offenbarten ein Defizit im motorischen Lernen. Somatostatin-Nullmäuse bleiben im Lernparadigma “Rotierender Stabtest” hinter ihren Artgenossen zurück ohne aber generell in Motorik oder Koordination eingeschränkt zu sein. Diese motorischen Lernvorgänge sind von einem funktionierenden Kleinhirn abhängig. Da Somatostatin und seine Rezeptoren kaum im adulten, wohl aber im sich entwickelnden Kleinhirn auftreten, belegt dieses Ergebnis die Funktion transient in der Entwicklung exprimierter Neuropeptide – eine lang bestehende, aber bislang experimentell nicht nachgewiesene Hypothese. Die Überprüfung weiterer physiologischer Parameter und Verhaltenskategorien unter Standard-Laborbedingunggen ergab keine sichtbaren Abweichungen im Vergleich zu Wildtyp-Mäusen. Damit steht nun ein Tiermodell zur weiterführenden Analyse für die Somatostatin-Forschung bereit: In endokrinologischen, elektrophysiologischen und verhaltens-biologischen Experimenten ist nun eine unmittelbare Korrelation selektiv mit dem Somatostatin-Peptid bzw. mit den Rezeptoren 3 und 4 aber auch in Kombination der Ausfallmutationen nach entsprechenden Kreuzungen möglich.

HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibition Promotes Neurological Recovery, Peri-Lesional Tissue Remodeling, and Contralesional Pyramidal Tract Plasticity after Focal Cerebral Ischemia

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors are widely used for secondary stroke prevention. Besides their lipid-lowering activity, pleiotropic effects on neuronal survival, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis have been described. In view of these observations, we were interested whether HMG-CoA reductase inhibition in the post-acute stroke phase promotes neurological recovery, peri-lesional, and contralesional neuronal plasticity. We examined effects of the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor rosuvastatin (0.2 or 2.0 mg/kg/day i.c.v.), administered starting 3 days after 30 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion for 30 days. Here, we show that rosuvastatin treatment significantly increased the grip strength and motor coordination of animals, promoted exploration behavior, and reduced anxiety. It was associated with structural remodeling of peri-lesional brain tissue, reflected by increased neuronal survival, enhanced capillary density, and reduced striatal and corpus callosum atrophy. Increased sprouting of contralesional pyramidal tract fibers crossing the midline in order to innervate the ipsilesional red nucleus was noticed in rosuvastatin compared with vehicle-treated mice, as shown by anterograde tract tracing experiments. Western blot analysis revealed that the abundance of HMG-CoA reductase was increased in the contralesional hemisphere at 14 and 28 days post-ischemia. Our data support the idea that HMG-CoA reductase inhibition promotes brain remodeling and plasticity far beyond the acute stroke phase, resulting in neurological recovery.

La coordinación motriz en la Adolescencia y su relación con el IMC, hábitos de práctica y motivación en E.F: Estudio transversal y longitudinal

En las últimas décadas, ha aumentado el interés de la investigación sobre el desarrollo de la coordinación motriz en la adolescencia por ser una etapa sensible, crítica y crucial para la adquisición de hábitos y conductas saludables de vida. Estos estudios han mostrado que la adquisición de unos niveles óptimos de coordinación y competencia motriz van a ser determinantes para el bienestar del adolescente y van a estar relacionados e influidos por otras dimensiones del desarrollo de la persona. Recientes investigaciones han sacado a la luz datos alarmantes sobre el aumento de problemas de coordinación motriz en la población infantil y adolescente (Cantell, Smyth y Ahonen, 1994; Gómez, 2004; Ruiz, Graupera, Gutiérrez y Miyahara, 2003; Sudgen y Chambers, 2005) donde abrocharse los botones de una camisa o correr de forma armónica puede ser todo un mundo lleno de dificultades y consecuencias sobre otras dimensiones del desarrollo (Ramón-Otero y Ruiz, 2015). Estos problemas han sido tratados por investigadores como una “dificultad oculta” (Gómez, Ruiz y Mata, 2006), cuya manifestación está presente en las actividades de la vida cotidiana, en contextos deportivos, en juegos y/o en la clase de Educación Física (Ruiz, 2004). La preocupación por estas dificultades se ha extendido a nivel internacional, creando todo un campo de investigación que estudia el diagnóstico de éstos problemas, conocido bajo las siglas DCD (Developmental Coordination Disorder). El presente estudio se centra en la etapa adolescente, periodo de transición entre la etapa infantil y adulta, caracterizada por numerosos cambios biológicos, cognitivos y socioemocionales (Santrock, 2005), que van a determinar la adaptación con el entorno (Gallahue, Ozmun y Goodway, 2011; Gómez, Ruiz, y Mata, 2006). El propósito principal del estudio es analizar el desarrollo de la coordinación motriz en la etapa adolescente investigando las diferencias de género y de edad en relación con variables psicosociales, los hábitos de práctica y las variables antropométricas. El diseño de la investigación se estructura en dos estudios. El primero de ellos, de carácter transversal, analizó una muestra representativa de 1.966 adolescentes de 1º a 4º de la ESO. El segundo, de naturaleza longitudinal, utilizó un grupo de 89 adolescentes del estudio transversal los cuales fueron estudiados durante 4 años, desde los 12 a los 15 años. Los mismos instrumentos fueron utilizados en ambos estudios: el Test Sportcomp para la evaluación de la coordinación motriz, el test AMPET4 para valorar la motivación de logro para el aprendizaje en Educación Física, el inventario HBSC para conocer los hábitos saludables sobre la práctica de actividad física y, por ultimo, se utilizó un estadiómetro para obtener el peso y la altura y así calcular el índice de masa corporal (IMC). La toma de datos del Estudio Transversal se realizó en 2 cursos académicos (2011/12 - 2012/13), en la cual se requirieron 3 sesiones coincidiendo con la clase de Educación Física. En la primera sesión, se evaluó la coordinación motriz. En la segunda se aplicaron los cuestionarios (AMPET4 y HBSC) y, en la última sesión se midió el peso y la altura en un espacio reservado al estadiómetro. El análisis de datos fue descriptivo y diferencial de cada una de las variables estudiadas: motoras, psicosociales, de hábitos de práctica de actividad física y antropométricas. Asimismo, se llevaron a cabo pruebas de análisis univariante y multivariante, calculando el valor-p y las pruebas de efecto. Respecto al Estudio Longitudinal, la toma de datos se llevó cabo durante 4 años desde el 2011 al 2014. La evaluación de la coordinación motriz se realizó en cada uno de los 4 años. Sin embargo, los 2 cuestionarios y las medidas antropométricas fueron evaluadas en el primer y cuarto año. Los análisis de datos fueron descriptivos y comparativos entre las variables analizadas. En el caso de la coordinación motriz, se realizaron las pruebas de medidas repetidas y, en el caso de las demás variables analizadas, se realizaron Prueba T para muestras relacionadas. Los resultados globales mostraron que el índice motor en el Estudio Transversal fue progresivo en el conjunto de chicos. Sin embargo, en las chicas, el rendimiento se estabiliza a partir de los 13 años. En el caso del Estudio Longitudinal, este índice se estabiliza en los 3 primeros años y a la edad de los 14, es cuando comienzan a acusarse las diferencias de género. En el caso de los hombres el rendimiento mejora y, por el contrario, en las mujeres empeora. En el Estudio Transversal, el análisis de varianza mostraron diferencias en función de la edad [F(7, 1958) = 220.70, p < .001; η2 = .101], del género [F(7, 1958) = 29.76, p < .001; η2 = .044], así como en la interacción entre ambos [F(7, 1958)= 11.90, p < .001; η2 = .018]. Únicamente aparecieron diferencias significativas con la edad en todos los grupos de hombres, excepto entre 14 y 15 años. En el Longitudinal, los contrastes multivariados mostraron que no hubo diferencias sgnificativas en el tiempo [F(3,85) = .05, p = .987, η2= .002] mostrando un nivel de coordinación estable a lo largo de los años, aunque existieron diferencias entre chicos y chicas [F(3,85) = 4.64 p = .005] con un tamaño de efecto destacable (η2 = .141). En cuanto a la motivación de logro para prender en Educación Física, en ambos estudios, los chicos fueron los que obtuvieron puntuaciones más elevadas en todas las dimensiones positivas del test (compromiso de aprendizaje, competencia autopercibida y comparada). Sin embargo, en la dimensión negativa del test, la referida a la ansiedad y al agobio ante el fracaso, fueron las chicas las que puntuaron más alto. En el Estudio Transversal, los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas en todas las dimensiones del AMPET4 en función del nivel de coordinación motriz: compromiso con el aprendizaje [F(2, 1644) = 8.66, p < .001; η2 = .010], competencia autopercibida [F(2, 1644) = 50.94, p < .001; η2 = .048], competencia comparada [F(2, 1644) = 41.56, p < .001, η2 = .020] y ansiedad [F(2, 1644) = 16.67, p < .001, η2 = .058]. En este sentido, los grupos de mejor nivel de coordinación motriz, fueron los que mayor puntuación obtuvieron en las dimensiones positivas y los que menor, en la negativa. En el Estudio Longitudinal, también se encontraron diferencias entre el primer y cuarto año de estudio en todas las dimensiones, excepto en competencia motriz autopercibida. Estas diferencias se tradujeron en una disminución en las 3 variables significativas del primer al cuarto año. Respecto al inventario HBSC, en el Estudio Longitudinal, la prueba T mostró únicamente la existencia de diferencias significativas entre el primer y cuarto año en 2 de los 11 ítems: percepción de la forma física (p = .006) y percepción de la salud (p = .047), los cuales disminuyeron en el intervalo de tiempo del estudio. En el Transversal, las diferencias se observaron en función del género (p < .001) y de la edad (p < .001). Asimismo, se mostraron diferencias significativas en todos los ítems respecto al nivel de coordinación motriz, excepto en 2 de ellos: frecuencia tiempo libre con los amigos fuera del colegio (p = .580) y facilidad para hacer amigos en el centro escolar (p = .098). Por último, en las variables antropométricas, los resultados del Estudio Transversal y Longitudinal coinciden tanto en la estatura como en el peso, apuntando, que en ambos estudios, se produce un aumento progresivo tanto en chicos como en chicas a medida que se avanza en edad. Concretamente en el Transversal, estas diferencias en la edad se encuentran en todos los grupos en ambos géneros, excepto en el conjunto de chicas entre los 14 y los 15 años. Asimismo, ambos estudios coincidieron en que tanto las ganancias en cm y kg, como las puntuaciones medias, fueron mayores en los chicos que en las chicas. Respecto al IMC, los 2 estudios coincidieron en que la evolución es paralela, y tal y como apuntan los resultados del Transversal, no se encontraron diferencias ni en la edad (p = 792) ni en el género (p = 284). No obstante, el Longitudinal apuntó únicamente diferencias significativas entre el primer y cuarto año en el conjunto de los hombres [t(41) = -4.01, p < .001]. Finalmente, y en relación con los niveles de coordinación motriz, hubo diferencias significativas en relación con el IMC (p = .012), mostrando como el grupo de peso normal coincide con puntuaciones óptimas de coordinación motriz. A modo de conclusiones, el presente estudio revela cómo la adquisición de un nivel de coordinación óptimo va a ser fundamental para el desarrollo psicosocial, para el desarrollo de hábitos saludables de práctica y para mantener un IMC dentro de la normalidad para el género y la edad. De esta manera, el desarrollo de la coordinación motriz será un aspecto fundamental para lograr un estado de bienestar físico y mental, y unos hábitos favorables para la práctica de actividad física. ABSTRACT In the past couple of decades, adolescence stage in motor coordination gained significant interest in research especially due to its sensitive and critical importance to achieving a healthy life style. These studies observed how to acquire optimum levels of coordination and motor competence, which proved crucial to the quality of the adolescent stage in addition to being influenced by other dimensions of development for each individual. Recent research shed light to an alarming set of data, which showed increased motor coordination problems in children and adolescents (Cantell, Smyth & Ahonen, 1994; Gómez, 2004; Ruiz, Graupera, Gutierrez & Miyahara, 2003; Sugden & Chambers, 2005). For instance, even to the extent that buttoning a shirt or running in a harmonic form can lead to a whole set of consequences and difficulties on the development stage. Researchers have addressed such problems in various studies such as “dificultad oculta” (Gomez, Ruiz & Mata, 2006), which literally translates as “hidden trouble”. The studies are evidently present in the activities of daily life, sporting contexts, games and/or Physical Education (Ruiz, 2004). Concern about these difficulties spread internationally, creating a whole framework research studying the diagnosis of these problems, known under the acronym DCD (Developmental Coordination Disorder). The study focuses on the adolescent stage, transition period between childhood and adulthood characterized by numerous biological, cognitive and socio-emotional changes (Santrock, 2005), which interestingly determines an individual´s adaptation to the environment (Gallahue, Ozmun & Goodway, 2011; Gomez, Ruiz & Mata, 2006). The main purpose of the study is to analyse the development of motor coordination in the adolescent stage investigating gender differences and age in relation to psychological variables, physical activity habits and anthropometric variables. The research design is structured in two studies. The first (transversal nature), analyses a representative sample of 1,966 adolescents from 1st to 4th of Secondary Education School. The second (longitudinal nature) used a group of 89 teenagers from cross-sectional study, which were studied for four years, from 12 to 15 years. The same instruments were used in both studies, namely; “Sportcomp Test” used to evaluate of motor coordination; “AMPET4 Test” which assesses the motivational achievement of learning Physical Education; “HBSC Inventory” to find out the healthy habits gained from physical activities; And finally a “stadiometer” was used to obtain the weight and height and thus calculate the body mass index (BMI). The data collection of the cross-sectional Study was conducted in two academic years (2011/12 - 2012/13), in which 3 sessions coinciding with the Physical Education level are required. In the first session, motor coordination was evaluated; questionnaires were applied in the second session (AMPET4 and HBSC); and in the last session the weight and height were measured in a reserved space for the “stadiometer”. Notably, data analysis was descriptive and differential in each of the variable studies: motor, psychological, practical and anthropometric habits of physical activity. Thus the tests were conducted in a univariate and multivariate analysis, calculating the p-value and effect tests. Regarding the Longitudinal Study, data collection was carried out during four years from 2011 to 2014 inclusively. The assessment of motor coordination was performed on each of the four years, however, the 2 questionnaires and anthropometric measures were evaluated in the first and fourth year. Data analyses were also descriptive and comparative among the variables that were put to the test. In the case of motor coordination tests, they were done on repeated measures, whilst, in the case of other variables analysed, they were accomplished through T Tests under comparable samples. The overall results showed that the engine Motor Index in Study 1 was progressive in all male gender studies, however in the females the performance remained constant after reaching 13 years of age. For the Longitudinal Study, this index is stabilized in the first 3 years and at the age of 14 is when the gender differences take place. In the case of males, the performance improves, however, in females worsens. The cross-sectional Study, analysis of variance showed differences in terms of age [F(7, 1958) = 220.70, p < .001; η2 = .101], gender [F(7, 1958) = 29.76, p <.001; η2 = .044], as well as their interaction [F(7, 1958) = 11.90, p <.001; η2 = .018]. They only show significant differences in respect to age in the male set sample, in all groups except between 14 and 15 years old. In the Longitudinal, the multivariate contrasts showed no significant differences in time [F(3,85) = 0.05, p = 0.987, η2 = 0.002] showing a stable level of coordination over the years, but if there were differences between both genders [F(3,85) = 4.64, p = .005] it took place with a noteworthy effect size (η2 = .141). In regards, to the Motivational Achievement for learning Physical Education, in both studies the male sample administered obtained higher scores on all the positive dimensions of the test (commitment to learning, self-assessed competence, and comparable competence). However, on the negative assessment side, namely, anxiety and fear of failure, the female sample scored higher than the male one. In Study 1, the multivariate analysis showed significant differences between the psychosocial dimensions and levels of motor coordination with moderate to significant effect [Lambada de Wilks = .931, F(8, 3282) = 14.99; p = <0.001; η2 = .035]. By the same token, the groups with the best level of motor coordination were the highest scoring ones in the positive dimensions, whilst the lower performing ones, performed better in the negative dimension. In the longitudinal study, there is also differences were also found between the first and fourth years of study in all dimensions, except in self-perceived motor competition. These differences resulted in a significant decrease in the 3 variables from first to fourth year. Regarding, the “HBSC Inventory”, the T test in the longitudinal study showed uniquely the existence of significant differences between the first and fourth year in 2 of the 11 items: perception of physical fitness (p = .006) and perceived health (p = 047), which diminished in the interval time of the study. In the Cross-sectional study, the se differences were also observed in gender (p < .001) and age (p < .001). Similarly, they showed significant differences in all items in respect to the motor coordination level, except in 2 of them; frequency of free time with friends outside of school (p = .580) and the ease to make friends at the educational centre (p = 098). And last but not least, the anthropometric variables, both the results of the Transversal and Longitudinal Study matched both height and weight, pointing out that in both studies a gradual increase in both genders, as they grow older. Notably in the Cross-sectional, these differences in age are found in all groups in both genders, except for the set of girls between 14 and 15 years. Thus both studies concluded that both gains in cm and kg and the mean scores were higher amongst males compared to females. Regarding BMI, the 2 studies concluded that the evolution is parallel, and as pointed cross-sectional study there isn’t differences found in age (p = 792) or in gender (p = 284). However, the Longitudinal study uniquely shows significant difference between the first and fourth year for male set sample [t (41) = -4.01, p < .001]. Finally, in relation to levels of motor coordination, there were significant differences in relation to BMI (p = .012), showing how the “normal weight group” matches the optimal scores of motor coordination. In conclusion, this study reveals how the acquisition of an optimal level of coordination is vital for psychological development, to develop and practice healthy habits, and to maintain a BMI within the normal range for age and gender. Therefore, the development of motor coordination is fundamental to achieving a state of physical and mental wellbeing, and preferable habits to pursuing physical activity.

Regulación del movimiento y anticipación en el resto del primer servicio en tenis

Aunque se han logrado importantes avances en estudios de laboratorio con diseños experimentales poco representativos (e.g., Farrow y Reid, 2012; Nieminen, Piirainen, Salmi, y Linnamo, 2013), a día de hoy, todavía se desconoce a cabalidad cómo los jugadores de tenis de diferente nivel de pericia calibran o ajustan sus movimientos a las demandas espacio-temporales presentes en la tarea de resto de un primer servicio. ! Escasos trabajos se han llevado a cabo in situ y a la mayoría se les puede cuestionar algún aspecto de la metodología empleada. Así pues, en varios estudios la frecuencia de grabación ha sido limitada (e.g., a 50 Hz en Jackson y Gudgeon, 2004; Triolet, Benguigui, Le Runigo y Williams, 2013), o la velocidad del saque ha sido visiblemente inferior a la habitual (cf. Carboch, Süss y Kocib, 2014; Williams, Singer y Weigelt, 1998). También, en algunos estudios los participantes experimentados no han sido jugadores de nivel internacional (e.g., Avilés, Ruiz, Sanz y Navia, 2014), y el tamaño muestral ha sido muy pequeño (e.g., Gillet, Leroy, Thouvarecq, Mégrot y Stein, 2010). ! Además, en los diferentes trabajos se han utilizado una diversidad de métodos e instrumentos de medida y los criterios de codificación del inicio de los movimientos y de las respuestas han diferido; como consecuencia el lapso visomotor de respuesta (LVMr) ha sido muy dispar variando considerablemente de 198 a 410 ms. Considerando los inconvenientes señalados anteriormente, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar un modelo técnico de regulación temporal de los movimientos y de la respuesta del restador, tomando en cuenta el flujo continuo de información proporcionado por el sacador. Para ello, se realizó un análisis cronométrico de los restos de doce jugadores de diferente nivel deportivo (seis internacionales y seis nacionales) que respondieron de forma natural enviando sus devoluciones hacia las dianas. Se grabaron las acciones de los restadores y sacadores con una cámara Casio Exilim Pro Ex-F1 de alta velocidad (300 Hz) y luego se realizó un análisis imagen por imagen cada 3.33 ms. Una vez obtenidos los datos de los vídeos se realizaron análisis con las pruebas de ANOVA de un factor, ANCOVA con la velocidad del saque como covariable, U de Mann-Whitney y Chi-cuadrado de Pearson. En cuanto a la regulación del movimiento hasta el momento del despegue, los jugadores internacionales iniciaron sus acciones antes que los jugadores nacionales lo que podría indicar una mejor preparación al ejecutar los movimientos como reflejo del nivel de pericia. Los jugadores internacionales iniciaron la elevación del pie posterior a -293 ms y los jugadores nacionales a -202 ms. Todas estas acciones se fueron enlazando unas con otras y fue en el momento del impacto del sacador donde los restadores demostraron una remarcable coordinación perceptivo-motriz. Por consiguiente, los jugadores internacionales despegaron e iniciaron el vuelo a tan solo -6.5 ms del impacto y los jugadores nacionales lo hicieron más tarde a +19.5 ms. A lo largo de la secuencia temporal, todo parece indicar que las informaciones que utilizan los restadores interactúan entre sí; información más temprana y menos fiable para anticipar o moverse antes e información más tardía y más fiable para regular la temporalización de las acciones. Los restadores de nivel internacional y nacional anticiparon a nivel espacial en un bajo porcentaje (7.7% vs. 13.6%) y en tiempos similares (-127 vs. -118 ms) sugiriendo que la utilización de variables ópticas tempranas y menos fiables solo se produce en contadas ocasiones. Por otra parte, estos datos se relacionan con una gran precisión en la respuesta ya que tanto los jugadores internacionales como los nacionales demostraron un alto porcentaje de acierto al responder (95.4% vs. 96.7%). Se había señalado que los jugadores internacionales y nacionales se diferenciarían en el tiempo de caída (i.e., aterrizaje) del primer pie del salto preparatorio, sin embargo ese efecto no fue encontrado (128 vs. 135 ms). Tampoco se hallaron diferencias en el porcentaje de caída con el pie contrario a la dirección de la pelota (58% vs. 62%). Donde sí ambos grupos se diferenciaron fue en el tiempo de caída del segundo pie (147 vs. 168 ms). Esta diferencia de 21 ms fue crucial y fue una prueba de la mayor rapidez de los jugadores internacionales; sugiriendo que ésta acción se podría relacionar con el momento del inicio de la respuesta. Aunque los jugadores internacionales hayan demostrado ser más rápidos en relación con sus capacidades funcionales, ambos grupos no se diferenciaron en todas las variables relacionadas con el LVMr. Ellos no utilizaron esos valiosos milisegundos ganados en el instante de la caída del segundo pie para responder más pronto, ya que el LVMr del miembro superior fue el mismo para ambos grupos (179 vs. 174 ms). Es como si hubiesen tenido todo el tiempo del mundo para seguir ajustando sus acciones hasta el propio golpeo. Además, estos tiempos largos sugieren que en la gran mayoría de los restos la información clave que determinó la respuesta fue detectada (extraída) en momentos cercanos al golpeo del sacador y en la primera parte del vuelo de la pelota. Asimismo, se constató que en general el LVMr se ve influenciado por el tipo de información utilizada. De esta manera, cuando se tomaron en cuenta los ensayos en los que hubo anticipación espacial reflejados en el LVMr del cuerpo entero los tiempos disminuyeron (152 vs. 136 ms). Por otra parte, existieron ocasiones (13%) en los que tanto los jugadores internacionales como los nacionales respondieron tarde recibiendo saques directos (208 vs. 195 ms). Es muy posible que en estos casos los jugadores hayan tenido problemas para detectar la información respondiendo fuera de los márgenes temporales de acción lo que mermó su rendimiento. Lo mismo pudo haber ocurrido cuando ambos grupos de jugadores corrigieron el movimiento del miembro superior tras el impacto (17% vs. 10%) lo que aumentó el tiempo en responder al redirigir la respuesta hacia el lado correcto (208 vs. 205 ms). Además, los jugadores internacionales obtuvieron tiempos de movimiento menores que el de los jugadores nacionales (509 vs. 531 ms) lo que se reflejó en un tiempo total de actuación menor (683 vs. 703 ms). Por último, en cuanto al rendimiento del resto, los jugadores internacionales obtuvieron valores superiores a los jugadores nacionales (1.3 vs. 0.9). ABSTRACT Although there have been significant advances in laboratory studies with unrepresentative experimental designs (e.g., Farrow y Reid, 2012; Nieminen, Piirainen, Salmi, y Linnamo, 2013), today it is still unknown to full extent how tennis players of different levels of expertise calibrate or adjust their movements to the spatial-temporal demands present in the return of a first serve. Few studies have been carried out in situ and some aspects of the methodology most of them used can be questioned. Thus, in several studies the recording frequency has been limited (e.g., a 50 Hz en Jackson y Gudgeon, 2004; Triolet, Benguigui, Le Runigo y Williams, 2013), or serve speed was visibly lower than the usual one (cf. Carboch, Süss y Kocib, 2014; Williams, Singer y Weigelt, 1998). Also, in some studies, experienced participants have not played at international level (e.g., Avilés, Ruiz, Sanz y Navia, 2014), and the sample size has been very small (e.g., Gillet, Leroy, Thouvarecq, Mégrot y Stein, 2010). Furthermore, different works have used a variety of methods and measurement instruments and coding criteria of the onset of movements and responses have differed; due to this, visuomotor response delay (LVMr) has been very uneven, varying considerably from 198-410 ms. Considering the drawbacks mentioned above, this study aimed to determine a technical model of temporal regulation of movements and returner’s response, taking into account the continuous flow of information provided by the server. For this, a chronometric analysis of the returns of twelve players (six international and six national) of different sports level, that naturally responded by hitting their returns towards the targets, was performed. Actions of servers and returners were recorded with a Casio Exilim Pro Ex-F1 high speed camera (300 Hz) and then every 3.33 ms analysis was made frame by frame. Once the data of the videos were obtained, analyses were performed using one factor ANOVA test, ANCOVA with the speed of the serve as a covariate, U of Mann- Whitney and Pearson’s Chi-square test. As for the regulation of movement until the moment of serve, international players began their actions before national players, which could indicate that they were better prepared to execute movements reflecting the level of their expertise. International players began raising the rear foot at -293 ms and national players at -202 ms. All these actions were being linked to each other and it was at the moment of impact of the server when the receivers demonstrated a remarkable perceptual-motor coordination. Therefore, international players took off and started their flight just -6.5 ms before the serve and national players did the same somewhat later: +19.5 ms after the serve. Along the timeline, everything seems to indicate that the information used by returners interact with each other; early information which is less reliable to anticipate or move before, and later information more reliable appears to regulate the timing of actions. Returners of international and national levels anticipated at spatial level in a low percentage (7.7% vs. 13.6%) and in similar times (-127 vs. -118 ms) suggesting that the use of early and less reliable optical variables is only produced on rare occasions. Moreover, these data relate to a precise response as both international and national players showed a high percentage of success in responding (95.4% vs. 96.7%). It had been noted that international and national players would differ in the time the fall (i.e., landing) of the first foot of the split-step, however, this effect was not found (128 vs. 135 ms). No differences in the percentage of fall with the opposite foot to the direction of the ball (58% vs. 62%) were found. Where the two groups differed was in the time of the fall of the second foot (147 vs. 168 ms). This difference of 21 ms was crucial and it was a proof of mayor speed of international players; suggesting that this action could be related to the onset time of response. Although international players have proven to be faster in relation to their functional capabilities, both groups did not differ in all variables related to LVMr. They did not use those precious milliseconds earned at the time of the fall of the second foot to respond as soon, since the LVMr of the upper limb was the same for both groups (179 vs. 174 ms). It is as if they had all the time in the world to continue to adjust their actions until the return itself. Furthermore, these long times suggest that in the vast majority of the returns, key information that determined the response was detected (pick-up) in moments close to the hit of the server and in the first part of the ball flight. It was also found that in general the LVMr is influenced by the type of information used. Thus, when taking into account the trials during which there was spatial anticipation, reflected in LVMr of the whole body, the times decreased (152 vs. 136 ms). On the other hand, there were occasions (13%) where both international and national players responded late, thus receiving aces (208 vs. 195 ms). It is quite possible that in these cases the players have had trouble to pick-up information, responding out of temporary margins of action, which affected their performance. The same could have occurred when both groups of players corrected upper limb movement after impact (17% vs. 10%), which increased the time to respond and to redirect the return towards the right side (208 vs. 205 ms). Moreover, international players scored lower movement times than the national players (509 vs. 531 ms), which was reflected in a shorter total response time (683 vs. 703 ms). Finally, as far as the performance of return is concerned, international players scored above the national players values (1.3 vs. 0.9).

USO DO BRINQUEDO NO ATENDIMENTO FISIOTERAPÊUTICO DE CRIANÇAS COM PARALISIA CEREBRAL

A paralisia cerebral, doença não progressiva, compromete movimentos e postura. A fisioterapia atual volta-se para um tratamento holístico. Brincar proporciona desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor. O presente estudo tem como objetivos investigar a opinião de fisioterapeutas que atuam em neuropediatria sobre a utilização do brinquedo em sua prática clínica e verificar sua possível utilização em intervenções junto a crianças com paralisia cerebral. Utiliza-se inicialmente de questionário de opinião junto a 50 fisioterapeutas das diversas clínicas da Associação de Apoio a Criança com Deficiência, AACD - SP, verificando a utilização de brinquedos face aos diversos objetivos fisioterapeuticos; a seguir, realiza observação de 60 atendimentos, em fisioterapia aquática e de solo, de crianças com paralisia cerebral, identificando a utilização de cada categoria de brinquedo relativo ao objetivo terapêutico. Os dados obtidos no questionário revelaram em ordem decrescente utilização de: brinquedos sensório-motores 57,4%, para ganho de equilíbrio (E); 22,2% para coordenação motora (CM); 18,5% para aquisições posturais (AP) e 2% para relaxamento muscular (RM). Em relação aos jogos de faz-de-conta: 37% (E); 39% (AP) e 24% (CM).Para os jogos de regras: 54% (E); 35% (CM); 11% (AP). Com os jogos de montagem: 52% (CM); 24% (E); 24% (AP). Os dados da observação revelaram que os principais objetivos terapêuticos visados com utilização de brinquedos foram: alongamento, primeiro 10 ; fortalecimento muscular, equilíbrio e treino de marcha de 10 a 40 . Quanto à modalidade de brinquedo observada houve predomínio do faz de conta no início e no fim da sessão e das demais categorias no meio, de forma intercalada. Os dados da observação coincidiram com os do questionário revelando utilização sistemática de brinquedos com objetivos fisioterapeuticos.(AU)

USO DO BRINQUEDO NO ATENDIMENTO FISIOTERAPÊUTICO DE CRIANÇAS COM PARALISIA CEREBRAL

A paralisia cerebral, doença não progressiva, compromete movimentos e postura. A fisioterapia atual volta-se para um tratamento holístico. Brincar proporciona desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor. O presente estudo tem como objetivos investigar a opinião de fisioterapeutas que atuam em neuropediatria sobre a utilização do brinquedo em sua prática clínica e verificar sua possível utilização em intervenções junto a crianças com paralisia cerebral. Utiliza-se inicialmente de questionário de opinião junto a 50 fisioterapeutas das diversas clínicas da Associação de Apoio a Criança com Deficiência, AACD - SP, verificando a utilização de brinquedos face aos diversos objetivos fisioterapeuticos; a seguir, realiza observação de 60 atendimentos, em fisioterapia aquática e de solo, de crianças com paralisia cerebral, identificando a utilização de cada categoria de brinquedo relativo ao objetivo terapêutico. Os dados obtidos no questionário revelaram em ordem decrescente utilização de: brinquedos sensório-motores 57,4%, para ganho de equilíbrio (E); 22,2% para coordenação motora (CM); 18,5% para aquisições posturais (AP) e 2% para relaxamento muscular (RM). Em relação aos jogos de faz-de-conta: 37% (E); 39% (AP) e 24% (CM).Para os jogos de regras: 54% (E); 35% (CM); 11% (AP). Com os jogos de montagem: 52% (CM); 24% (E); 24% (AP). Os dados da observação revelaram que os principais objetivos terapêuticos visados com utilização de brinquedos foram: alongamento, primeiro 10 ; fortalecimento muscular, equilíbrio e treino de marcha de 10 a 40 . Quanto à modalidade de brinquedo observada houve predomínio do faz de conta no início e no fim da sessão e das demais categorias no meio, de forma intercalada. Os dados da observação coincidiram com os do questionário revelando utilização sistemática de brinquedos com objetivos fisioterapeuticos.(AU)

Characterization of a high-voltage-activated IA current with a role in spike timing and locomotor pattern generation

Transient A-type K+ channels (IA) in neurons have been implicated in the delay of the spike onset and the decrease in the firing frequency. Here we have characterized biophysically and pharmacologically an IA current in lamprey locomotor network neurons that is activated by suprathreshold depolarization and is specifically blocked by catechol at 100 μM. The biophysical properties of this current are similar to the mammalian Kv3.4 channel. The role of the IA current both in single neuron firing and in locomotor pattern generation was analyzed. The IA current facilitates Na+ channel recovery from inactivation and thus sustains repetitive firing. The role of the IA current in motor pattern generation was examined by applying catechol during fictive locomotion induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate. Blockade of this current increased the locomotor burst frequency and decreased the firing of motoneurons. Although an alternating motor pattern could still be generated, the cycle duration was less regular, with ventral roots bursts failing on some cycles. Our results thus provide insights into the contribution of a high-voltage-activated IA current to the regulation of firing properties and motor coordination in the lamprey spinal cord.

Mitochondrial impairments contribute to Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 progression and can be ameliorated by the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant MitoQ

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), due to an unstable polyglutamine expansion within the ubiquitously expressed Ataxin-1 protein, leads to the premature degeneration of Purkinje cells (PCs), decreasing motor coordination and causing death within 10-15 years of diagnosis. Currently, there are no therapies available to slow down disease progression. As secondary cellular impairments contributing to SCA1 progression are poorly understood, here, we focused on identifying those processes by performing a PC specific proteome profiling of Sca1154Q/2Q mice at a symptomatic stage. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed prominent alterations in mitochondrial proteins. Immunohistochemical and serial block-face scanning electron microscopy analyses confirmed that PCs underwent age-dependent alterations in mitochondrial morphology. Moreover, colorimetric assays demonstrated impairment of the electron transport chain complexes (ETC) and decrease in ATPase activity. Subsequently, we examined whether the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant MitoQ could restore mitochondrial dysfunction and prevent SCA1-associated pathology in Sca1154Q/2Q mice. MitoQ treatment both presymptomatically and when symptoms were evident ameliorated mitochondrial morphology and restored the activities of the ETC complexes. Notably, MitoQ slowed down the appearance of SCA1-linked neuropathology such as lack of motor coordination as well as preventing oxidative stress-induced DNA / RNA damage and PC loss. Our work identifies a central role for mitochondria in PC degeneration in SCA1 and provides evidence for the supportive use of mitochondria-targeted therapeutics in slowing down disease progression.

USO DO BRINQUEDO NO ATENDIMENTO FISIOTERAPÊUTICO DE CRIANÇAS COM PARALISIA CEREBRAL

A paralisia cerebral, doença não progressiva, compromete movimentos e postura. A fisioterapia atual volta-se para um tratamento holístico. Brincar proporciona desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor. O presente estudo tem como objetivos investigar a opinião de fisioterapeutas que atuam em neuropediatria sobre a utilização do brinquedo em sua prática clínica e verificar sua possível utilização em intervenções junto a crianças com paralisia cerebral. Utiliza-se inicialmente de questionário de opinião junto a 50 fisioterapeutas das diversas clínicas da Associação de Apoio a Criança com Deficiência, AACD - SP, verificando a utilização de brinquedos face aos diversos objetivos fisioterapeuticos; a seguir, realiza observação de 60 atendimentos, em fisioterapia aquática e de solo, de crianças com paralisia cerebral, identificando a utilização de cada categoria de brinquedo relativo ao objetivo terapêutico. Os dados obtidos no questionário revelaram em ordem decrescente utilização de: brinquedos sensório-motores 57,4%, para ganho de equilíbrio (E); 22,2% para coordenação motora (CM); 18,5% para aquisições posturais (AP) e 2% para relaxamento muscular (RM). Em relação aos jogos de faz-de-conta: 37% (E); 39% (AP) e 24% (CM).Para os jogos de regras: 54% (E); 35% (CM); 11% (AP). Com os jogos de montagem: 52% (CM); 24% (E); 24% (AP). Os dados da observação revelaram que os principais objetivos terapêuticos visados com utilização de brinquedos foram: alongamento, primeiro 10 ; fortalecimento muscular, equilíbrio e treino de marcha de 10 a 40 . Quanto à modalidade de brinquedo observada houve predomínio do faz de conta no início e no fim da sessão e das demais categorias no meio, de forma intercalada. Os dados da observação coincidiram com os do questionário revelando utilização sistemática de brinquedos com objetivos fisioterapeuticos.(AU)

Neuromuscular Changes in Older Adults during the Lateral Step Task

Older adults may have trouble when performing activities of daily living due to decrease in physical strength and degradation of neuromotor and musculoskeletal function. Motor activation patterns during Lateral Step Down and Step Up from 4-inch and 8-inch step heights was assessed in younger (n=8, 24.4 years) and older adults (n=8, 58.9 years) using joint angle kinematics and electromyography of lower extremity muscles. Ground reaction forces were used to ascertain the loading, stabilization and unloading phases of the tasks. Older adults had an altered muscle activation sequence and significantly longer muscle bursts during loading for the tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, vastus medialis, bicep femoris, gluteus medius and gluteus maximus muscles of the stationary leg. They also demonstrated a significantly larger swing time (579.1 ms vs. 444.8 ms) during the step down task for the moving leg. The novel data suggests presence of age-related differences in motor coordination during lateral stepping.

A acupunctura como forma de controlo da ansiedade na performance e de resolução de patologias músculo-esqueléticas em músicos

As patologias músculo-esqueléticas apresentam um interesse particular nos tempos atuais, visto terem origem em atividades viciosas, nos movimentos repetitivos, no sedentarismo e na hipertonia muscular relacionada com o stresse no contexto profissional ou pessoal, que é tão comum nos músicos. Por outro lado, a performance musical requer alto nível de habilidade em diversos parâmetros, como coordenação motora, atenção e memória o que a torna numa atividade particularmente suscetível não só às patologias músculo-esqueléticas como também à ansiedade. É aqui que se introduz a acupunctura. É cada vez mais recorrente a procura das terapias complementares e/ou alternativas por parte dos músicos, em contraposição aos métodos utilizados pela medicina convencional. Dos diversos métodos da Medicina Tradicional Chinesa, a acupunctura, encontra-se, talvez entre o mais procurado. A acupunctura pode ser definida como um técnica terapêutica que tem como método predominante a introdução de agulhas na periferia do corpo humano. O efeito das agulhas será o de provocar alterações no sistema energético do paciente que resultarão em mudanças benéficas que ocorrem a nível físico. O que me traz à discussão do tema, para além da problemática das patologias músculo-esqueléticas nos músicos é o crescente número de músicos com problemas de ansiedade e a contribuição desta medicina como alternativa de tratamento.

Behavioural alterations are independent of sickness behaviour in chronic experimental Chagas disease

The existence of the nervous form of Chagas disease is a matter of discussion since Carlos Chagas described neurological disorders, learning and behavioural alterations in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected individuals. In most patients, the clinical manifestations of the acute phase, including neurological abnormalities, resolve spontaneously without apparent consequence in the chronic phase of infection. However, chronic Chagas disease patients have behavioural changes such as psychomotor alterations, attention and memory deficits, and depression. In the present study, we tested whether or not behavioural alterations are reproducible in experimental models. We show that C57BL/6 mice chronically infected with the Colombian strain of T. cruzi (150 days post-infection) exhibit behavioural changes as (i) depression in the tail suspension and forced swim tests, (ii) anxiety analysed by elevated plus maze and open field test sand and (iii) motor coordination in the rotarod test. These alterations are neither associated with neuromuscular disorders assessed by the grip strength test nor with sickness behaviour analysed by temperature variation sand weight loss. Therefore, chronically T. cruzi-infected mice replicate behavioural alterations (depression and anxiety) detected in Chagas disease patients opening an opportunity to study the interconnection and the physiopathology of these two biological processes in an infectious scenario.

Estudo das competências grafomotoras em crianças no 3º ano de escolaridade, na região de Lisboa

A escrita é uma atividade complexa que envolve a interação constante de processos cognitivos e motores. As crianças passam grande parte do tempo a escrever em contexto escolar, aplicando também esta habilidade noutros contextos. As dificuldades de escrita ao nível da legibilidade e velocidade possuem um impacto negativo nos diferentes contextos de vida das crianças. Esta tese teve como objetivo estudar as competências de escrita em crianças no 3º ano de escolaridade, período em que é alcançada uma automatização da escrita. Começou-se por traduzir, adaptar culturalmente e validar para o Português Europeu dois instrumentos que são internacionalmente utilizados no diagnóstico da Disgrafia e da Perturbação do Desenvolvimento da Coordenação (PDC): Movement Assessment Battery for Children – 2nd edition (MABC-2) e Echelle d’évaluation rapide de l’écriture chez l’enfant (BHK). Os instrumentos revelaram ser fidedignos e com solidez suficiente para a sua aplicação. Prosseguiu-se com a exploração da relação entre as competências de escrita e a coordenação motora. Não foi encontrada relação entre qualidade e velocidade de escrita e coordenação motora fina, nem qualquer associação entre qualidade e velocidade de escrita. Na diferença de desempenhos entre rapazes e raparigas, estas revelaram melhores resultados apenas na tarefa de colocação de pinos com a mão preferida. Verificou-se que a formação de letras é o fator que mais contribui para explicar os desempenhos na qualidade de escrita. Através de análise computacional conseguiu-se dar os primeiros passos para o estabelecimento de um padrão de legibilidade, com a caracterização espacial das letras. No entanto, não foi encontrada relação entre as características espaciais e a qualidade de escrita. No final desta tese, relatam-se as limitações dos procedimentos adotados e sugerem-se futuros desafios de investigação dos fenómenos inerentes a esta temática.