Civilian casualties and nuclear weapons: the application of the rule of distinction

This chapter considers the possible use in armed conflict of low-yield (also known as tactical) nuclear weapons. The Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion maintained that it is a cardinal principle that a State must never make civilians an object of attack and must consequently never use weapons that are incapable of distinguishing between civilian and military targets. As international humanitarian law applies equally to any use of nuclear weapons, it is argued that there is no use of nuclear weapons that could spare civilian casualties particularly if you view the long-term health and environmental effects of the use of such weaponry.

The EU’s Self-Defeating Aid Policy towards Palestine. CEPS Policy Brief No. 343/May 2016

Motivated by the dual aims of strengthening the Middle East Peace Process and contributing to Palestinian state-building, the European Union and its member states have been the biggest donors of financial assistance to the Palestinians. This CEPS Policy Brief finds, however, that these efforts have not achieved the desired change, as the EU failed to develop a coherent strategy to address Israel’s violations of international humanitarian law and it has accepted practices that undermine its political objectives. Hence, the author, Brigitte Herremans, argues that the aid has not contributed to a strong Palestinian government that can contribute to the security of both Palestinian and Israeli civilians. She calls upon the EU and its member states to take more measures to ensure that aid is received by people in need and that illegal practices on the part of Israel do not hamper its effectiveness.

As ROE na condução das Operações de Estabilização (não Artigo 5º - NA5CRO)

O presente Trabalho de Investigação Aplicada tem como tema “As ROE na condução das Operações de Estabilização (não Artigo 5º - NA5CRO)”. Atendendo à variedade de modalidades de intervenção, as forças multinacionais regem-se por Regras de Empenhamento. As Regras de Empenhamento implicam treino, em função da especificidade da Operação de Estabilização, enquadradas na gestão de crises. A investigação tem por objetivo saber qual o papel das Regras de Empenhamento nas Operações de Estabilização e a forma como estas são interpretadas e aplicadas pelas chefias militares em situações de intervenção em crises, com a presença de forças multinacionais, nomeadamente da ONU, NATO e UE. A metodologia adotada visa responder à pergunta central e, após a formulação desta, foram formuladas questões derivadas para encontrar possíveis respostas. O trabalho realizado fundamenta-se no levantamento bibliográfico, análise de documentos e realização de entrevistas. Através de uma amostra, realizaram-se entrevistas a chefias militares Portuguesas do Exército e da Marinha, que já se debruçaram sobre a problemática das Regras de Empenhamento, em termos teóricos e práticos, nomeadamente acerca do papel que lhes atribuem e a sua importância na concretização de um ambiente seguro e estável para as populações. A análise de conteúdo das entrevistas permitiu constatar que as chefias militares entrevistadas consideram relevante a existência e concomitante aplicação das Regras de Empenhamento. A investigação confirmou a importância das Regras de Empenhamento, como uma orientação para a ação e, sobretudo, como devem ser consideradas imprescindíveis para demarcar a limitação do uso da força, em questões de proporcionalidade e demais princípios que regem a aplicação de forças no âmbito do Direito Internacional Humanitário e dos Conflitos Armados (DIHCA). Verificou-se que a metodologia doutrinalmente aplicada nas Regras de Empenhamento, lhes confere suficientemente flexibilidade, não carecendo de atualização permanente, sendo utilizadas de acordo com tipologias específicas. Por último, releva-se a importância do treino militar, para que se conheçam os objetivos específicos das Operações de Estabilização em função da sua tipologia e a correspondente aplicabilidade das ROE.

Contenido y alcance del acto preparatorio punible de ordenar en el artículo (8) (2) (e) (viii) del Estatuto de Roma

“La Unidad de Víctimas de la Fiscalía de la CPI envió en agosto de 2015 a la Clínica Jurídica Internacional de la Universidad del Rosario la siguiente pregunta: “En cuanto al rechazo de la cámara de la solicitud de autorización para apelar presentada por la Defensa en el caso Ntaganda contra la “Solicitud de Defensa de autorización para apelar la decisión sobre la confirmación de los cargos de fecha 09 de junio 2014” de la Sala de cuestiones preliminares I, No ICC-01/04-02/06-322, 7 de Julio de 2014), el artículo 8(2)(e)(viii) del Estatuto de Roma requiere que la Fiscalía demuestre que una orden específica fue dada por el autor para ejecutar el desplazamiento ilegal de la población civil? ¿Y cuál es la relación (semejanzas y diferencias) entre el delito de desplazamiento ilegal en virtud del artículo 8 (2) (e) (viii) del Estatuto de Roma, y el crimen de persecución en virtud del artículo 7 (1) (h)? En términos más generales, ¿cuál es el ámbito de aplicación del crimen de guerra de desplazar a la población civil en virtud del artículo 8 (2) (e) (viii) del Estatuto de Roma? Por favor, incluya en su respuesta un análisis de la historia de la redacción de la disposición pertinente (s) del Estatuto de Roma y los Elementos de los crímenes, así como de la jurisprudencia pertinente de otros tribunales penales internacionales sobre el crimen de guerra de desplazar a la población civil…”

¿Se encuentran protegidas las esposas o compañeras menores de 15 años de los miembros de las partes en un conflicto armado no internacional frente a la violencia sexual ejercida por sus propias parejas o por otros miembros del grupo al que pertenecen?

La protección general atribuida en los conflictos armados no internacionales por el artículo 3 común a la población civil, de la que las niñas menores de 15 años forman parte, no depende de su filiación con alguna de las partes en el conflicto, y se extiende, en principio, a todos los actos de violencia, entre los que se encuentran los de naturaleza sexual cometidos por cualquiera de las mismas, incluyendo aquellos cometidos por los miembros de la parte en el conflicto con la que se encuentren afiliadas. Los casos contra Thomas Lubanga y Bosco Ntaganda muestran que, como regla general, las niñas menores de 15 años no desarrollan de manera prolongada actividades de participación directa en las hostilidades, por lo que, a pesar de acompañar permanente al grupo y de ser “esposas” o “compañeras” de sus comandantes, no asumen una función continua de combate y no pueden ser consideradas como miembros del mismo. Además, los actos de naturaleza sexual coercitivamente desarrollados por las niñas menores de 15 años reclutadas por las FPLC en favor de los comandantes y miembros del grupo con las que se encuentran esposadas, no cumple ninguno de los tres requisitos exigidos por el concepto de participación directa en las hostilidades porque: (a) no son idóneos para causar directamente por sí mismos el umbral de daño requerido; (b) no forman parte integral de ninguna operación militar que pudiera generar dicho umbral de daño; y (c) no poseen el nexo beligerante requerido, puesto que no están específicamente diseñados para causar un menoscabo a la parte adversa de las FLPC. Tampoco las demás actividades desarrolladas por las niñas menores de 15 años alistadas o reclutadas por las FLPC, incluyendo trabajo doméstico (donde principalmente desempeñaron tareas culinarias), transporte de comida a bases aéreas y acompañamiento a las esposas de los comandantes, cumplen, según la Sala de Primera Instancia I en el caso Lubanga, con los tres requisitos necesarios para su consideración como participación directa en las hostilidades. De ahí, que las niñas no hayan perdido en ningún momento su protección general. A todo lo anterior hay que añadir que los niños y niñas menores de 15 años, al ser una población particularmente vulnerable, gozan de una especial protección durante los conflictos armados (con independencia de su naturaleza), tal y como se manifiesta en la Convención de los Derechos del Niño de 1989, los Convenios de Ginebra de 1949 y de sus Protocolos adicionales de 1977, el Estatuto de la Corte Penal Internacional de 1998 y las Resoluciones 1882 de 2009, 1960 de 2010 y 2106 de 2013 del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas. Esta protección especial se extiende a los actos de violencia sexual cometidos por los miembros de las fuerzas armadas nacionales o grupos armados organizados que los alistan o reclutan. En consecuencia, la protección general y especial a que son acreedoras las niñas menores de 15 años, no se limita a las agresiones provenientes de las partes adversas en el conflicto, sino que se extiende también a la violencia sexual ejercida contra ellas por los miembros del propio grupo que las alistó o reclutó, incluso en el caso de que ésta sea ejercida por los comandantes que las tomaron como esposas o compañeras. Las niñas menores de 15 años alistadas o reclutadas entre 2002 y 2003 por las FPLC de Thomas Lubanga y Bosco Ntaganda eran sin duda acreedoras de dicha protección.

Implicaciones humanitarias de la contratación de empresas militares privadas (PMC) por parte de los Estados. Estudio de caso; Estados Unidos y Blackwater en Irak (2003-2007)

La presente investigación tiene como finalidad analizar las implicaciones humanitarias de la participación de las Compañías Militares Privadas (PMC) contratadas por los Estados en escenarios de conflicto, a partir del caso de Blackwater y Estados Unidos en Irak (2003-2007), con el fin de mostrar a través de algunos hechos específicos como el acaecido en la plaza Al Nisour los vacíos existentes en la regulación de sus actividades. Frente a estos hechos se muestra como la Comunidad Internacional ha tratado de avanzar en la creación de un régimen internacional que las controle, sin embargo, como se evidencia a lo largo de este escrito la falta de compromiso por parte de los Estados ha hecho que esta tarea se vea obstaculizada y por lo tanto la actuación de estas compañías se encuentra aún en una zona jurídica gris.

The Responsibility to Protect and International Law

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a major new international principle, adopted unanimously in 2005 by Heads of State and Government. Whilst it is broadly acknowledged that the principle has an important and intimate relationship with international law, especially the law relating to sovereignty, peace and security, human rights and armed conflict, there has yet to be a volume dedicated to this question. The Responsibility to Protect and International Law fills that gap by bringing together leading scholars from North America, Europe and Australia to examine R2P’s legal content. The Responsibility to Protect and International Law focuses on questions relating to R2P’s legal quality, its relationship with sovereignty, and the question of whether the norm establishes legal obligations. It also aims to introduce readers to different legal perspectives, including feminism, and pressing practical questions such as how the law might be used to prevent genocide and mass atrocities, and punish the perpetrators.

The right to humanitarian assistance in natural and human-made disasters: progress and challenges for an emerging international legal framework

Natural and human-made disasters cause on average 120,000 deaths and over US$140 billion in damage to property and infrastructure every year, with national, regional and international actors consistently responding to the humanitarian imperative to alleviate suffering wherever it may be found. Despite various attempts to codify international disaster laws since the 1920s, a right to humanitarian assistance remains contested, reflecting concerns regarding the relative importance of state sovereignty vis-à-vis individual rights under international law. However, the evolving acquis humanitaire of binding and non-binding normative standards for responses to humanitarian crises highlights the increasing focus on rights and responsibilities applicable in disasters; although the International Law Commission has also noted the difficulty of identifying lex lata and lex ferenda regarding the protection of persons in the event of disasters due to the “amorphous state of the law relating to international disaster response.” Therefore, using the conceptual framework of transnational legal process, this thesis analyses the evolving normative frameworks and standards for rights-holders and duty-bearers in disasters. Determining the process whereby rights are created and evolve, and their potential internalisation into domestic law and policy, provides a powerful analytical framework for examining the progress and challenges of developing accountable responses to major disasters.

An Analysis of Soft Law Applicable to Humanitarian Assistance: Relative Normativity in Action?

There is limited binding international law specifically covering the provision of humanitarian assistance in response to natural and human-made disasters. Yet a variety of authoritative soft law texts have been developed in the past 20 years, including the UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, the Red Cross Red Crescent Code of Conduct and the Sphere Project’s Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response. While such ‘non-binding normative standards’ do not carry the weight of international law, they play an essential role in the provision of humanitarian assistance albeit subject to their limited enforceability vis-à-vis intended beneficiaries and to their voluntary application by humanitarian actors. Notwithstanding a lack of legal compulsion, certain non-binding normative standards may directly influence the actions of States and non-State actors, and so obtain a strongly persuasive character. Analysis of texts that influence the practice of humanitarian assistance advances our understanding of humanitarian principles and performance standards for disaster response. As the International Law Commission debates draft articles on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters, such non-binding normative standards are crucial to the development of an internationally accepted legal framework to protect victims of disasters.

Right to Food, Food Security and Food Aid Under International Law, or the Limits of a right-based approach

The right to food has become a pillar of international humanitarian and human rights law. The increasing number of food-related emergencies and the evolution of the international order brought the more precise notion of food security and made a potential right to receive food aid emerge. Despite this apparent centrality, recent statistics show that a life free from hunger is for many people all over the world still a utopian idea. The paper will explore nature and content of the right to food, food security and food aid under international law in order to understand the reasons behind the substantial failure of this right-centred approach, emphasising the lack of legal effects of many food-related provisions because of excessive moral connotations of the right to be free from hunger. Bearing in mind the three-dimensional nature of food security, the paper will also suggest that all attention has been focused on the availability of food, while real difficulties arise in terms of accessibility and adequacy. Emergency situations provide an excellent example of this unbalance, as the emerging right to receive food aid focus itself on the availability of food, without improving local production and adequacy. Looking at other evolving sectors of international law, such as the protection of the environment, and particularly the safeguard of biological diversity, alternative solutions will be envisaged in order to “feed” the right to food.

Realistic yet humanitarian? The comprehensive plan of action and refugee policy in Southeast Asia

The 1989 Comprehensive Plan of Action (CPA) has recently been described as a successful example of how to manage large protracted refugee flows. However, this article revisits the circumstances surrounding the CPA used to resolve the prolonged Indo-Chinese refugee crisis to highlight that part of its development was linked to the fact that Southeast Asian states refused to engage with proposed solutions, which did not include repatriation for the majority of the Indo-Chinese asylum seekers who were deemed to be ‘non-genuine’1 ( UNGA, 1989a) refugees. This resulted in the CPA often forcibly repatriating ‘non-genuine’ refugees, particularly near the end of its program. This article reviews the CPA in order to assess whether its practices and results should be repeated.

Legal ethics in a post-Westphalian world : building the international rule of law and otehr tasks

The emergence of strong sovereign states after the Treaty of Westphalia turned two of the most cosmopolitan professions (law and arms) into two of the least cosmopolitan. Sovereign states determined the content of the law within their borders – including which, if any, ecclesiastical law was to be applied; what form of economic regulation was adopted; and what, if any, international law applied. Similarly, states sought to ensure that all military force was at their disposal in national armies. The erosion of sovereignty in a post-Westphalian world may significantly reverse these processes. The erosion of sovereignty is likely to have profound consequences for the legal profession and the ethics of how, and for what ends, it is practised. Lawyers have played a major role in the civilization of sovereign states through the articulation and institutionalisation of key governance values – starting with the rule of law. An increasingly global profession must take on similar tasks. The same could be said of the military. This essay will review the concept of an international rule of law and its relationship to domestic conceptions and outline the task of building the international rule of law and the role that lawyers can and should play in it.