International law and the regulation of violence : shifting perceptions of the legitimacy of the jus ad bellum?

International law’s capacity to influence state behaviour by regulating recourse to violence has been a longstanding source of debate among international lawyers and political scientists. On the one hand, sceptics assert that frequent violations of the prohibition on the use of force have rendered article 2(4) of the UN Charter redundant. They contend that national self-interest, rather than international law, is the key determinant of state behaviour regarding the use of force. On the other hand, defenders of article 2(4) argue first, that most states comply with the Charter framework, and second, that state rhetoric continues to acknowledge the existence of the jus ad bellum. In particular, the fact that violators go to considerable lengths to offer legal or factual justifications for their conduct – typically by relying on the right of self-defence – is advanced as evidence that the prohibition on the use of force retains legitimacy in the eyes of states. This paper identifies two potentially significant features of state practice since 2006 which may signal a shift in states’ perceptions of the normative authority of article 2(4). The first aspect is the recent failure by several states to offer explicit legal justifications for their use or force, or to report action taken in self-defence to the Security Council in accordance with Article 51. Four incidents linked to the global “war on terror” are examined here: Israeli airstrikes in Syria in 2007 and in Sudan in 2009, Turkey’s 2006-2008 incursions into northern Iraq, and Ethiopia’s 2006 intervention in Somalia. The second, more troubling feature is the international community’s apparent lack of concern over the legality of these incidents. Each use of force is difficult to reconcile with the strict requirements of the jus ad bellum; yet none attracted genuine legal scrutiny or debate among other states. While it is too early to conclude that these relatively minor incidents presage long term shifts in state practice, viewed together the two developments identified here suggest a possible downgrading of the role of international law in discussions over the use of force, at least in conflicts linked to the “war on terror”. This, in turn, may represent a declining perception of the normative authority of the jus ad bellum, and a concomitant admission of the limits of international law in regulating violence.

The acute adaptations of normal and pathological human Achilles tendons to eccentric and concentric exercise

Eccentric exercise is the conservative treatment of choice for mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy. While there is a growing body of evidence supporting the medium to long term efficacy of eccentric exercise in Achilles tendinopathy treatment, very few studies have investigated the short term response of the tendon to eccentric exercise. Moreover, the mechanisms through which tendinopathy symptom resolution occurs remain to be established. The primary purpose of this thesis was to investigate the acute adaptations of the Achilles tendon to, and the biomechanical characteristics of, the eccentric exercise protocol used for Achilles tendinopathy rehabilitation and a concentric equivalent. The research was conducted with an orientation towards exploring potential mechanisms through which eccentric exercise may bring about a resolution of tendinopathy symptoms. Specifically, the morphology of tendinopathic and normal Achilles tendons was monitored using high resolution sonography prior to and following eccentric and concentric exercise, to facilitate comparison between the treatment of choice and a similar alternative. To date, the only proposed mechanism through which eccentric exercise is thought to result in symptom resolution is the increased variability in motor output force observed during eccentric exercise. This thesis expanded upon prior work by investigating the variability in motor output force recorded during eccentric and concentric exercises, when performed at two different knee joint angles, by limbs with and without symptomatic tendinopathy. The methodological phase of the research focused on establishing the reliability of measures of tendon thickness, tendon echogenicity, electromyography (EMG) of the Triceps Surae and the standard deviation (SD) and power spectral density (PSD) of the vertical ground reaction force (VGRF). These analyses facilitated comparison between the error in the measurements and experimental differences identified as statistically significant, so that the importance and meaning of the experimental differences could be established. One potential limitation of monitoring the morphological response of the Achilles tendon to exercise loading is that the Achilles tendon is continually exposed to additional loading as participants complete the walking required to carry out their necessary daily tasks. The specific purpose of the last experiment in the methodological phase was to evaluate the effect of incidental walking activity on Achilles tendon morphology. The results of this study indicated that walking activity could decrease Achilles tendon thickness (negative diametral strain) and that the decrease in thickness was dependent on both the amount of walking completed and the proximity of walking activity to the sonographic examination. Thus, incidental walking activity was identified as a potentially confounding factor for future experiments which endeavoured to monitor changes in tendon thickness with exercise loading. In the experimental phase of this thesis the thickness of Achilles tendons was monitored prior to and following isolated eccentric and concentric exercise. The initial pilot study demonstrated that eccentric exercise resulted in a greater acute decrease in Achilles tendon thickness (greater diametral strain) compared to an equivalent concentric exercise, in participants with no history of Achilles tendon pain. This experiment was then expanded to incorporate participants with unilateral Achilles tendinopathy. The major finding of this experiment was that the acute decrease in Achilles tendon thickness observed following eccentric exercise was modified by the presence of tendinopathy, with a smaller decrease (less diametral strain) noted for tendinopathic compared to healthy control tendon. Based on in vitro evidence a decrease in tendon thickness is believed to reflect extrusion of fluid from the tendon with loading. This process would appear to be limited by the presence of pathology and is hypothesised to be a result of the changes in tendon structure associated with tendinopathy. Load induced fluid movement may be important to the maintenance of tendon homeostasis and structure as it has the potential to enhance molecular movement and stimulate tendon remodelling. On this basis eccentric exercise may be more beneficial to the tendon than concentric exercise. Finally, EMG and motor output force variability (SD and PSD of VGRF) were investigated while participants with and without tendinopathy performed the eccentric and concentric exercises. Although between condition differences were identified as statistically significant for a number of force variability parameters, the differences were not greater than the limits of agreement for repeated measures. Consequently the meaning and importance of these findings were questioned. Interestingly, the EMG amplitude of all three Triceps Surae muscles did not vary with knee joint angle during the performance of eccentric exercise. This raises questions pertaining to the functional importance of performing the eccentric exercise protocol at each of the two knee joint angles as it is currently prescribed. EMG amplitude was significantly greater during concentric compared to eccentric muscle actions. Differences in the muscle activation patterns may result in different stress distributions within the tendon and be related to the different diametral strain responses observed for eccentric and concentric muscle actions.

China and the "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P) : the implications of the Libyan intervention

The emerging principle of a “responsibility to protect” (R2P) presents a direct challenge to China's traditional emphasis on the twin principles of non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other states and non-use of military force. This paper considers the evolution of China‟s relationship with R2P over the past ten years. In particular, it examines how China engaged with R2P during the recent Libyan crisis, and considers what impact this conflict may have first, on Chinese attitudes to R2P, and second, on the future development and implementation of the doctrine itself. This paper argues that China‟s decision to allow the passage of Security Council resolution 1973, authorising force in Libya, was shaped by an unusual set of pragmatic considerations, and should not be viewed as evidence of a dramatic shift in Chinese attitudes towards R2P. More broadly, controversy over the scope of NATO's military action in Libya has raised questions about R2P‟s legitimacy, which has contributed to a lack of timely international action in Syria and Yemen. In the short term at least, this post-Libya backlash against R2P is likely to constrain the Security Council‟s ability to respond decisively to other civilian protection situations.

I sang Amazing Grace for about 3 hours that day : understanding Indigenous Australians’ experience of seclusion

Research shows that Indigenous Australians suspicion and fear of being ‘locked up’ may influence mental health service avoidance. Given this, the aim of this study was to explore, by qualitative analysis of in depth interviews (N = 3), how three Indigenous people experienced the controversial practice of seclusion Hans-Georg Gadamer’s phenomenology guided analysis of the material, and allowed narrated experiences to be understood within their cultural and historical context. Participants viewed seclusion negatively: police involvement in psychiatric care; perceptions of being punished and powerless; occasions of extreme use of force; and lack of care were prominent themes throughout the interviews. While power imbalances inherent in seclusion are problematic for all mental health clients, the distinguishing factor in the Indigenous clients’ experience is that seclusion is continuous with the discriminatory and degrading treatment by governments, police and health services that many Indigenous people have experienced since colonisation. The participants’ experiences echoed Goffman’s (1961) findings that institutional practices act to degrade and dehumanise clients whose resulting conformity eases the work of nursing staff. While some nurses perceive that seclusion reduces clients’ agitation (Meehan, Bergen & Fjeldsoe, 2004; Wynaden et al., 2001), one must ask at what cost to clients’ dignity, humanity and basic human rights.

Porohyperelastic analysis to explore mechanical properties of chondrocytes using numerical modeling and experiments : a finite element study

There are many continuum mechanical models have been developed such as liquid drop models, solid models, and so on for single living cell biomechanics studies. However, these models do not give a fully approach to exhibit a clear understanding of the behaviour of single living cells such as swelling behaviour, drag effect, etc. Hence, the porohyperelastic (PHE) model which can capture those aspects would be a good candidature to study cells behaviour (e.g. chondrocytes in this study). In this research, an FEM model of single chondrocyte cell will be developed by using this PHE model to simulate Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) experimental results with the variation of strain rate. This material model will be compared with viscoelastic model to demonstrate the advantages of PHE model. The results have shown that the maximum value of force applied of PHE model is lower at lower strain rates. This is because the mobile fluid does not have enough time to exude in case of very high strain rate and also due to the lower permeability of the membrane than that of the protoplasm of chondrocyte. This behavior is barely observed in viscoelastic model. Thus, PHE model is the better model for cell biomechanics studies.

Hierarchical multiscale model for biomechanics analysis of microfilament networks

The mechanisms of force generation and transference via microfilament networks are crucial to the understandings of mechanobiology of cellular processes in living cells. However, there exists an enormous challenge for all-atom physics simulation of real size microfilament networks due to scale limitation of molecular simulation techniques. Following biophysical investigations of constitutive relations between adjacent globular actin monomers on filamentous actin, a hierarchical multiscale model was developed to investigate the biomechanical properties of microfilament networks. This model was validated by previous experimental studies of axial tension and transverse vibration of single F-actin. The biomechanics of microfilament networks can be investigated at the scale of real eukaryotic cell size (10 μm). This multiscale approach provides a powerful modeling tool which can contribute to the understandings of actin-related cellular processes in living cells.

Higher-order non-linear analysis of steel structures. Part II : refined plastic hinge formulation

In the companion paper, a fourth-order element formulation in an updated Lagrangian formulation was presented to handle geometric non-linearities. The formulation of the present paper extends this to include material non-linearity by proposing a refined plastic hinge approach to analyse large steel framed structures with many members, for which contemporary algorithms based on the plastic zone approach can be problematic computationally. This concept is an advancement of conventional plastic hinge approaches, as the refined plastic hinge technique allows for gradual yielding, being recognized as distributed plasticity across the element section, a condition of full plasticity, as well as including strain hardening. It is founded on interaction yield surfaces specified analytically in terms of force resultants, and achieves accurate and rapid convergence for large frames for which geometric and material non-linearity are significant. The solutions are shown to be efficacious in terms of a balance of accuracy and computational expediency. In addition to the numerical efficiency, the present versatile approach is able to capture different kinds of material and geometric non-linearities on general applications of steel structures, and thereby it offers an efficacious and accurate means of assessing non-linear behaviour of the structures for engineering practice.

Reliability and validity of physical fitness field tests for adults aged 55 to 70 years

The aim of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of field tests for assessing physical function in mid-aged and young-old people (55-70 y). Tests were selected that required minimal space and equipment and could be implemented in multiple field settings such as a general practitioner's office. Nineteen participants completed 2 field and I laboratory testing sessions. Intra-class correlations showed good reliability for the tests of upper body strength (lift and reach, R=.66), lower body strength (sit to stand, R=.80) and functional capacity (Canadian Step Test, R=.92), but not for leg power (single timed chair rise, R=.28). There was also good reliability for the balance test during 3 stances: parallel (94.7% agreement), semi-tandem (73.7%), and tandem (52.6%). Comparison of field test results with objective laboratory measures found good validity for the sit to stand (cf 1RM leg press, Pearson r=.68, p <.05), and for the step test (cf PWC140, r = -.60, p <.001), but not for the lift and reach (cf 1RM bench press, r=.43, p >.05), balance (r=-.13, -.18, .23) and rate of force development tests (r=-.28). It was concluded that the lower body strength and cardiovascular function tests were appropriate for use in field settings with mid-aged and young-old adults.

A constitutive model for mechanical response characterization of pumpkin peel and flesh tissues under tensile and compressive loadings

Enhancing quality of food products and reducing volume of waste during mechanical operations of food industry requires a comprehensive knowledge of material response under loadings. While research has focused on mechanical response of food material, the volume of waste after harvesting and during processing stages is still considerably high in both developing and developed countries. This research aims to develop and evaluate a constitutive model of mechanical response of tough skinned vegetables under postharvest and processing operations. The model focuses on both tensile and compressive properties of pumpkin flesh and peel tissues where the behaviours of these tissues vary depending on various factors such as rheological response and cellular structure. Both elastic and plastic response of tissue were considered in the modelling process and finite elasticity combined with pseudo elasticity theory was applied to generate the model. The outcomes were then validated using the published results of experimental work on pumpkin flesh and peel under uniaxial tensile and compression. The constitutive coefficients for peel under tensile test was α = 25.66 and β = −18.48 Mpa and for flesh α = −5.29 and β = 5.27 Mpa. under compression the constitutive coefficients were α = 4.74 and β = −1.71 Mpa for peel and α = 0.76 and β = −1.86 Mpa for flesh samples. Constitutive curves predicted the values of force precisely and close to the experimental values. The curves were fit for whole stress versus strain curve as well as a section of curve up to bio yield point. The modelling outputs had presented good agreement with the empirical values and the constructive curves exhibited a very similar pattern to the experimental curves. The presented constitutive model can be applied next to other agricultural materials under loading in future.

Load bearing exercises and functional outcome of individuals with transfemoral amputation fitted with OPRA fixation

Individuals with lower limb amputation fitted with an OPRA osseointegrated fixation are facing an extensive rehabilitation program including static load bearing exercises (LBE). The application of a suitable amount of stress stimulates osseointegration and prepares the bone to tolerate the forces and moments that will be incurred during activities of daily living (ADL. At present, the monitoring is typically carried out using a normal bathroom weighing scale. This scale provides information only on the magnitude of the vertical component of the applied force. The moment around the long axis of the fixation when the femur is perpendicular to the ground is not assessed and neither are the components of force and moment generated on the other two axes.

Is there evidence to support the use of the angle of peak torque as a marker of hamstring injury and re-injury risk?

Hamstring strain injuries are the predominant injury in many sports, costing athletes and clubs a significant financial and performance burden. Therefore the ability to identify and intervene with individuals who are considered at a high risk of injury is important. One measure which has grown in popularity as an outcome variable following hamstring intervention/prevention studies and rehabilitation is the angle of peak knee flexor torque. This current opinion article will firstly introduce the measure and the processes behind it. Secondly, this article will summarise how the angle of peak knee flexor torque has been suggested to measure hamstring strain injury risk. Finally various limitations will be presented and outlined as to how they may influence the measure. These include the lack of muscle specificity, the common concentric contraction mode of assessment, reliability of the measure, various neural contributions (such as rate of force development and neuromuscular inhibition) as well as the lack of prospective data showing any predictive value in the measure.

Finite element analysis investigation of response of pumpkin tissue under uniaxial loading

Finite element analysis (FEA) models of uniaxial loading of pumpkin peel and flesh tissues were developed and validated using experimental results. The tensile model was developed for both linear elastic and plastic material models, the compression model was develop d only with the plastic material model. The outcomes of force versus time curves obtained from FEA models followed similar pattern to the experimental curves however the curve resulted with linear elastic material properties had a higher difference with the experimental curves. The values of predicted forces were determined and compared with the experimental curve. An error indicator was introduced and computed for each case and compared. Additionally Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values were also calculated for each model and compared. The results of modelling were used to develop material model for peel and flesh tissues in FEA modelling of mechanical peeling of tough skinned vegetables.

Deus vult: Images of crusader violence c. 1095-1100.

This study sets out to provide new information about the interaction between abstract religious ideas and actual acts of violence in the early crusading movement. The sources are asked, whether such a concept as religious violence can be sorted out as an independent or distinguishable source of aggression at the moment of actual bloodshed. The analysis concentrates on the practitioners of sacred violence, crusaders and their mental processing of the use of violence, the concept of the violent act, and the set of values and attitudes defining this concept. The scope of the study, the early crusade movement, covers the period from late 1080 s to the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 15 July 1099. The research has been carried out by contextual reading of relevant sources. Eyewitness reports will be compared with texts that were produced by ecclesiastics in Europe. Critical reading of the texts reveals both connecting ideas and interesting differences between them. The sources share a positive attitude towards crusading, and have principally been written to propagate the crusade institution and find new recruits. The emphasis of the study is on the interpretation of images: the sources are not asked what really happened in chronological order, but what the crusader understanding of the reality was like. Fictional material can be even more crucial for the understanding of the crusading mentality. Crusader sources from around the turn of the twelfth century accept violent encounters with non-Christians on the grounds of external hostility directed towards the Christian community. The enemies of Christendom can be identified with either non-Christians living outside the Christian society (Muslims), non-Christians living within the Christian society (Jews) or Christian heretics. Western Christians are described as both victims and avengers of the surrounding forces of diabolical evil. Although the ideal of universal Christianity and gradual eradication of the non-Christian is present, the practical means of achieving a united Christendom are not discussed. The objective of crusader violence was thus entirely Christian: the punishment of the wicked and the restoration of Christian morals and the divine order. Meanwhile, the means used to achieve these objectives were not. Given the scarcity of written regulations concerning the use of force in bello, perceptions concerning the practical use of violence were drawn from a multitude of notions comprising an adaptable network of secular and ecclesiastical, pre-Christian and Christian traditions. Though essentially ideological and often religious in character, the early crusader concept of the practise of violence was not exclusively rooted in Christian thought. The main conclusion of the study is that there existed a definable crusader ideology of the use of force by 1100. The crusader image of violence involved several levels of thought. Predominantly, violence indicates a means of achieving higher spiritual rewards; eternal salvation and immortal glory.

Note on the stability of parallel magnetic fields

The stability characteristics of parallel magnetic fields when fluid motions are present along the lines of force is studied. The stability criterion for both symmetric (m=0) and asymmetric (m=1) modes are discussed and the results obtained by Trehan and Singh (1978) are amended in the present study. The results obtained for the cylindrical geometry are shown to play an important role forka<4, wherek is the wave number,a is the radius of the cylinder, compared to the results obtained by Geronicolas (1977) for the slab geometry.

Re-examination of one-point methods of liquid limit determination

This Paper deals with the analysis of liquid limit of soils, an inferential parameter of universal acceptance. It has been undertaken primarily to re-examine one-point methods of determination of liquid limit water contents. It has been shown by basic characteristics of soils and associated physico-chemical factors that critical shear strengths at liquid limit water contents arise out of force field equilibrium and are independent of soil type. This leads to the formation of a scientific base for liquid limit determination by one-point methods, which hitherto was formulated purely on statistical analysis of data. Available methods (Norman, 1959; Karlsson, 1961; Clayton & Jukes, 1978) of one-point liquid limit determination have been critically re-examined. A simple one-point cone penetrometer method of computing liquid limit has been suggested and compared with other methods. Experimental data of Sherwood & Ryley (1970) have been employed for comparison of different cone penetration methods. Results indicate that, apart from mere statistical considerations, one-point methods have a strong scientific base on the uniqueness of modified flow line irrespective of soil type. Normalized flow line is obtained by normalization of water contents by liquid limit values thereby nullifying the effects of surface areas and associated physico-chemical factors that are otherwise reflected in different responses at macrolevel.Cet article traite de l'analyse de la limite de liquidité des sols, paramètre déductif universellement accepté. Cette analyse a été entreprise en premier lieu pour ré-examiner les méthodes à un point destinées à la détermination de la teneur en eau à la limite de liquidité. Il a été démontré par les caractéristiques fondamentales de sols et par des facteurs physico-chimiques associés que les résistances critiques à la rupture au cisaillement pour des teneurs en eau à la limite de liquidité résultent de l'équilibre des champs de forces et sont indépendantes du type de sol concerné. On peut donc constituer une base scientifique pour la détermination de la limite de liquidité par des méthodes à un point lesquelles, jusqu'alors, n'avaient été formulées que sur la base d'une analyse statistique des données. Les méthodes dont on dispose (Norman, 1959; Karlsson, 1961; Clayton & Jukes, 1978) pour la détermination de la limite de liquidité à un point font l'objet d'un ré-examen critique. Une simple méthode d'analyse à un point à l'aide d'un pénétromètre à cône pour le calcul de la limite de liquidité a été suggérée et comparée à d'autres méthodes. Les données expérimentales de Sherwood & Ryley (1970) ont été utilisées en vue de comparer différentes méthodes de pénétration par cône. En plus de considérations d'ordre purement statistque, les résultats montrent que les méthodes de détermination à un point constituent une base scientifique solide en raison du caractère unique de la ligne de courant modifiée, quel que soit le type de sol La ligne de courant normalisée est obtenue par la normalisation de la teneur en eau en faisant appel à des valeurs de limite de liquidité pour, de cette manière, annuler les effets des surfaces et des facteurs physico-chimiques associés qui sans cela se manifesteraient dans les différentes réponses au niveau macro.