Incongruence between self-reported and observed senior physical education teaching styles : an analysis using Mosston and Ashworth’s spectrum

Pedagogical styles, methods, models, practices or strategies are valued for what they claim they can achieve. In recent times curriculum documents and governments have called for a range of teaching approaches to meet the variety of learner differences and allow students to make more independent decision making in physical education (Hardy and Mawer, 1999). One well known system of categorizing teaching styles is the Mosston and Ashworth’s Spectrum of Teaching Styles (2002). In Queensland, prior to 2005, no research had been conducted on the teaching styles used by teachers of Physical Education. However, many teachers self-reported that they employed a variety of teaching styles depending on the aims and content of the material to be taught (Cothran, et al., 2005). This research, for the first time, collected teacher’s self-reported use of teaching styles and through observations verify the styles that were being used to teach Senior Physical Education in Queensland. More specifically the aims of the research were to determine: a) What teaching styles teachers of Senior Physical Education in Queensland believe they use? i) Were they using a range of teaching styles? ii) Were teachers of Senior Physical Education in Queensland using teaching styles that the Queensland Senior Physical Education Syllabus (2004) required? b) If Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) Spectrum of Teaching Styles were used to categorise styles observed during the teaching of Senior Physical Education did the styles being used provide opportunities for evaluating as described by the Queensland Senior Physical Education Syllabus (2004)? The research was conducted in two phases. Part A involved use of a questionnaire to determine the teaching styles Queensland teachers of Senior Physical Education reported using and how often they reported using them. The questionnaire was administered to 110 teachers throughout Queensland. The sample was determined from 346 schools teaching Senior Physical Education (in 2006) across the state of Queensland, Australia. 286 questionnaires were sent to 77 non-randomised schools. There were 66 male and 44 female respondents in the sample. A wide range of teaching styles were reportedly used by teachers of Senior Physical Education with Practice Style-Style B, Command Style-Style A and Divergent Discovery Style-Style H, the most reportedly used. The Self-Teaching Style-Style K was reportedly used the least by teachers involved in this study. From the respondents a group of teachers were identified to form the participants for Part B. Part B of the study involved observation of a group of volunteer participants (from those who had completed the questionnaire) who displayed many of the ‘typical’ characteristics, and a cross-section of backgrounds, of teachers of Senior Physical Education in Queensland. In the case of this study, the criteria used to select the group of teachers to be observed teaching were, teaching experience (number of years: 0-4, 5-10 and 11 years and over), gender, geographical location of schools (focused on Brisbane and near area for travel/access purposes), profile of the students at schools (girls, boys or co-educational), nature of school (Government or Private) and the physical activities being taught in a school (activities to reflect all the areas of physical activity outlined within the syllabus). A total of 27 questionnaire respondents from Part A indicated that they were willing to be observed teaching practical lessons. The respondents who volunteered to be involved in Part B of the study came from different regions across the state of Queensland and was not confined to the Brisbane metropolitan area or large cities. From the group of people who volunteered for Part B four came from outside Brisbane and 23 from the Brisbane area. The final observation group of nine participants included eight teachers from the Brisbane area and one from a rural area. The characteristics of the final group included three females and six males from private and public schools with a range of teaching experience in years and a range of physical activities. Four year 12 and five year 11 teachers and their classes were videoed on three occasions as they progressed through an eight – nine week unit of work. This resulted in 24 hours 48 minutes and 20 seconds (or 4465 observations) of video teaching data which was subsequently coded by several researchers (99% interobserver reliability) to determine the teaching styles employed by the participants. This research indicated that, based on Mosston and Ashworth’s (2002) Spectrum of Teaching Styles, teachers of Senior Physical Education in Queensland used predominantly one style to teach 27 observed lessons. This is in sharp contrast to the variety of styles 110 teachers self- reportedly used and in spite of the Queensland Senior Physical Education Syllabus (2004) suggesting a range of specific styles be used. These results are discussed in the context of the Queensland Senior Physical Education Syllabus (2004), teacher knowledge of teaching styles and high-stakes curriculum and external pressures such as national testing and the publication of data from schools in tabloid newspapers. The data and findings in this research provide a rationale for improving teacher knowledge regarding teaching styles and the need for a clear definition of terminology in syllabus documents. Careful examination of the effects that the publishing of school data may have on teaching styles is advised. This research not only collected teacher’s perceptions of the teaching styles they believed they used it also verified these claims through direct observations of the teachers while teaching. These findings are relevant to syllabus writers, teacher educators, policy makers within education and teachers.

Pre-service Physical Education teachers and concerns regarding their ability to successfully facilitate school-based physical activity promotion strategies

Regular physical activity (PA) in youth has numerous immediate and long-term health benefits. With several studies indicating low levels of youth PA globally, schools settings have become increasingly critical settings for youth health promotion strategies. The role of physical education (PE) teachers has long been considered central to the facilitation of such strategies. However, PE teachers have a selfreported lack of knowledge, skills, understanding, and competence to successfully implement these strategies. Tertiary education programs are fundamental to adequately preparing, and shaping the attitudes and philosophies of future PE teachers towards their involvement within these programs. The aim of this investigation was to explore the beliefs and perceptions of future secondary school PE teachers, regarding their potential roles in future school-based programs designed to promote student PA. Fifty-seven (21 males and 36 females) pre-service PE teachers completed a series of open-ended survey questions concerning their perceptions towards participating in school-based PA promotion programs both as preservice during practicum, and prospectively as practising teachers. Responses were analysed thematically. Participants responded both positively and enthusiastically to both questions. Concerns regarding time, and the intention or expectation to participate in such programs were also key themes for pre-service and practicing teacher participation respectively. Critically in this study, participants did not identify any limitations which may impact upon their ability to successfully promote youth PA in school settings. This may indicate that participants have misconceptions regarding their ability to fulfil this role, or conversely, the deficiency of current PE teachers regarding school-based PA promotion has been recognised by the tertiary institution, and addressed to adequately prepare its students. School-based PA promotion is an integral element of pre-service PE teacher education, and ongoing professional development of practicing PE teachers. This trend is expected to continue in the future, in order to address ongoing public health concerns.

Life Drama : an arts education response to social and cultural challenges in Papua New Guinea

The Life Drama program is a theatre-based experiential learning program developed in Papua New Guinea over the past seven years. The Life Drama team recognises that a significant proportion of “education” for learners of all ages takes place outside formal education systems, particularly in developing nations such as Papua New Guinea. If arts education principles and practices are to contribute meaningfully and powerfully to resolving social and cultural challenges, it is important to recognise that many learners and educators will encounter and use these principles and practices outside of school or university settings. This paper briefly describes the Life Drama program and its context, highlights its two streams of operation (community educators and teacher educators) and indicates some ways in which an arts-based education initiative like Life Drama contributes to Goal 3 of the Seoul Agenda:“Apply arts education principles and practices to contribute to resolving the social and cultural challenges facing today‟s world.” In particular, the project addresses sub-goal 3b:“Recognize and develop the social and cultural well-being dimensions of arts education”.

Variations in acculturation and Australian physical education teacher education students' receptiveness to an alternative pedagogical approach to games teaching

Background The development of intelligent, thinking performers as a central theme in Physical Education curriculum documents worldwide has highlighted the need for an evolution of teaching styles from the dominant reproductive approach. This has prompted an Australian university to change the content and delivery of a games unit within their Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) course and adopt a productive student centred approach that is compatible with current curriculum directives. The significance of prospective physical educators’ biographies on their receptiveness to this pedagogical innovation was studied to help recognise and understand potential differences and subsequently guide programme development to help improve the impact of teacher education. Purpose To investigate whether past school and sporting experiences are powerful influences on Australian PETE recruits’ initial perspectives about effective physical education teaching practice and their receptiveness to an alternative pedagogical approach. Participants and Setting 49 first year pre-service PETE students (53% male; 47% female; mean age 18.88 ± 1.57 years) undertaking a compulsory unit on games teaching at an Australian university volunteered to take part in the study and were grouped according to their highest level of representation in games, either school/club (n=13), regional (n=20), or state/national (n=16). Students experienced the constraints-led approach as learners and teachers during an 8-week games unit informed by nonlinear pedagogy and underpinned by motor learning theory. Data collection and Analysis Prior to the commencement of the unit participants completed part A of a two part mixed response questionnaire aimed at gathering data about their physical education and sporting background. The data were summarised using descriptive statistics. Pre and post intervention, participants completed part B responding, via Likert Scale with their opinion of the importance of each sub-component of the traditional reproductive style for an effective games teaching session. This resulted in a traditional reproductive games teaching belief score. For each sub-component, participants were invited to respond in more detail to justify their opinions. A one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey’s HSD Post Hoc Test and a two - tailed, paired samples t test were used to analyse the quantitative data. Content analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data. Findings The traditional, reproductive approach was the most frequently reported teaching approach used by the physical education teachers and sports coaches of participants in all groups. Prior to the commencement of the alternate games unit, participants in each representative level group held very strong custodial traditional reproductive games teaching beliefs. After experiencing the alternative games unit there were statistically significant differences in the traditional reproductive games teaching belief mean scores for each group, This combined with participants’ qualitative responses indicated a receptiveness to the alternative pedagogy. Conclusions The results of this present study show that, contrary to previous research undertaken in North America, in Australia, it is possible for PETE educators to change beliefs in order to overcome the constraint of acculturation and provide PETE students with the knowledge, understanding and belief in an alternate approach to teaching games in physical education compatible with curriculum documents.

Factors associated with physical activity in children attending family child care homes

Objective To determine the relationship between family child care home (FCCH) practices and characteristics, and objectively measured physical activity (PA) among children attending FCCHs. Methods FCCH practices and characteristics were assessed in 45 FCCHs in Oregon (USA) in 2010-2011 using the Nutrition and Physical Activity Self-Assessment for Child Care Instrument. Within the 45 FCCHs, 136 children between ages 2 and 5. years wore an accelerometer during child care attendance over a one-week period. Time spent in light, moderate, and vigorous PA per hour was calculated using intensity-related cut-points (Pate et al., 2006). Results FCCH characteristics and practices associated with higher levels of PA (min/h; p < 0.05) included provision of sufficient outdoor active play [32.2 (1.0) vs. 28.6 (1.3)], active play using portable play equipment [31.7 (1.0) vs. 29.3 (1.4)], the presence of a variety of fixed play equipment [32.2 (1.0) vs. 28.9 (1.3)], and suitable indoor play space [32.2 (1.0) vs. 28.6 (1.3)], engaging in active play with children [32.1 (1.1) vs. 29.6 (1.2)], and receiving activity-related training [33.1 (1.2) vs. 30.3 (1.1)]. Conclusions This is the first study to identify practices and characteristics of FCCHs that influence children's PA. These data should be considered when developing programs and policies to promote PA in FCCHs.

State of the art reviews : measurement of physical activity in children and adolescents

To date, a wide range of methods has been used to measure physical activity in children and adolescents. These include self-report methods such as questionnaires, activity logs, and diaries as well as objective measures of physical activity such as direct observation, doubly labeled water, heart rate monitoring, accelerometers, and pedometers. The purpose of this review is to overview the methods currently being used to measure physical activity in children and adolescents. For each measurement approach, new developments and/or innovations are identified and discussed. Particular attention is given to the use of accelerometers and the calibration of accelerometer output to units of energy expenditure to developing children.

School physical education in the post-report era : an analysis from public health

The 1996 United States Surgeon General’s report on physical activity and health represents a watershed moment in the modern history of physical activity and public health. Based on a compelling body of scientific evidence from the fields of medicine, epidemiology, physiology, and health psychology, the Surgeon General’s report proclaimed that people of all ages could improve their health and quality of life through lifelong practice of moderate physical activity (United States Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General was an especially important publication for school physical education. Not only did the report acknowledge the importance of regular physical activity during childhood and adolescence, it also identified school physical education as an important vehicle for promoting healthenhancing physical activity in young people. “With evidence that success in this arena is possible, every effort should be made to encourage schools to require daily physical education in each grade and to promote physical activities that can be enjoyed throughout life” (USDHHS, 1996, p. 6). The purpose of this article is to discuss the status of school physical education since the release of the Surgeon General’s report on physical activity and health nearly a decade ago. Specifically, the article will address four questions: 1) What has been the historical role of physical education in physical activity and public health? 2) What impact, if any, has the Surgeon General’s report has had on physical education programs? 3) What impact should physical education have on public health and physical activity? 4) What should teacher education programs in physical education do to prepare physical education teachers, given the current role of physical education?

Household food insecurity is associated with less physical activity among children and adults in the U.S. population

Background Household food insecurity and physical activity are each important public-health concerns in the United States, but the relation between them was not investigated thoroughly. Objective We wanted to examine the association between food insecurity and physical activity in the U.S. population. Methods Physical activity measured by accelerometry (PAM) and physical activity measured by questionnaire (PAQ) data from the NHANES 2003–2006 were used. Individuals aged <6 y or >65 y, pregnant, with physical limitations, or with family income >350% of the poverty line were excluded. Food insecurity was measured by the USDA Household Food Security Survey Module. Adjusted ORs were calculated from logistic regression to identify the association between food insecurity and adherence to the physical-activity guidelines. Adjusted coefficients were obtained from linear regression to identify the association between food insecurity with sedentary/physical-activity minutes. Results In children, food insecurity was not associated with adherence to physical-activity guidelines measured via PAM or PAQ and with sedentary minutes (P > 0.05). Food-insecure children did less moderate to vigorous physical activity than food-secure children (adjusted coefficient = −5.24, P = 0.02). In adults, food insecurity was significantly associated with adherence to physical-activity guidelines (adjusted OR = 0.72, P = 0.03 for PAM; and OR = 0.84, P < 0.01 for PAQ) but was not associated with sedentary minutes (P > 0.05). Conclusion Food-insecure children did less moderate to vigorous physical activity, and food-insecure adults were less likely to adhere to the physical-activity guidelines than those without food insecurity.

Using personal construct theory and narrative methods to facilitate reflexive constructions of teaching physical education

This paper reports on two lengthy studies in Physical education teacher education (PETE) conducted independently but which are epistemologically and methodologically linked. The paper describes how personal construct theory (PCT) and its associated methods provided a means for PETE students to reflexively construct their ideas about teaching physical education over an extended period. Data are drawn from each study in the form of a story of a single participant to indicate how this came about. Furthermore we suggest that PCT might be both a useful research strategy and an effective approach to facilitate professional development in a teacher education setting.

Intensity and seasonality of physical activity of children during school recess

This study aimed to quantify the intensity of physical activity (PA) of children during school recess (RE), compare the AF gender and seasonal influences. The sample consisted of 30 girls (11.2 ± 1.3 years) and 20 boys (11.3 ± 0.8 years). Heart rate was monitored for three consecutive REs in winter (INV) and spring (PRI) with intensity of the activity being classified as low, moderate and vigorous. Descriptive statistics were used for general data, t test for independent samples for differences between the sexes, paired t test for seasonality. Differences were found between INV and PRI temperatures. Girls had a significant reduction in the AF INV to PRI, which was not observed among boys. The RE represented a small contribution to daily recommendations of AF.

Overcoming acculturation: Physical education recruits' experiences of an alternative pedagogical approach to games teaching

Background Physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes have been identified as a critical platform to encourage the exploration of alternative teaching approaches by pre-service teachers. However, the socio-cultural constraint of acculturation or past physical education and sporting experiences results in the maintenance of the status quo of a teacher-driven, reproductive paradigm. Previous studies have reported successfully overcoming the powerful influence of acculturation, resulting in a change in PETE students’ custodial teaching beliefs and receptiveness to alternative teaching approaches. However, to date, limited information has been reported about how PETE students’ acculturation shaped their receptiveness to an alternative teaching approach. This is particularly the case for PETE recruits identified in the literature as most resistant to change. Purpose To explore the features and experiences of an alternative games teaching approach that appealed to PETE recruits’ identified as most resistant to change, requiring a specific sample of PETE recruits with strong, custodial, traditional physical education teaching beliefs, and whom are high achieving sporting products of this traditional culture. The alternative teaching approach explored in this study is the constraints-led approach (CLA), which is similar operationally to TGfU, but distinguished by a neurobiological theoretical framework (nonlinear pedagogy) that informs learning design. Participants and Setting A purposive sample of 10 Australian PETE students was recruited for the study. All participants initially had strong, custodial, traditional physical education teaching beliefs, and were successful sporting products of this teaching approach. After experiencing the CLA as learners during a games unit, participants demonstrated receptiveness to the alternative pedagogy. Data Collection and Analysis Semi-structured interviews and written reflections were sources of data collection. Each participant was interviewed separately, once prior to participation in the games unit to explore their positive physical education experiences, and then again after participation to explore the specific games unit learning experiences that influenced their receptiveness to the alternative pedagogy. Participants completed written reflections about their personal experiences after selected practical sessions. Data were qualitatively analysed using grounded theory. Findings: Thorough examination of the data resulted in establishment of two prominent themes related to the appeal of the CLA for the participants: (i) psychomotor (effective in developing skill), and (ii), inclusivity (included students of varying skill level). The efficacy of the CLA in skill development was clearly an important mediator of receptiveness for highly successful products of a traditional culture. This significant finding could be explained by three key factors: the acculturation of the participants, the motor learning theory underpinning the alternative pedagogy and the unit learning design and delivery. The inclusive nature of the CLA provided a solution to the problem of exclusion, which also made the approach attractive to participants. Conclusion PETE educators could consider these findings when introducing an alternative pedagogy aimed at challenging PETE recruits’ custodial, traditional teaching beliefs. To mediate receptiveness, it is important that the learning theory underpinning the alternative approach is operationalised in a research-informed pedagogical learning design that facilitates students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the approach through experiencing and or observing it working.