Abundancia y distribución de cianobacterias (Microcystis sp, Anabaena sp, Oscillatoria sp) en el Lago de Ilopango, El Salvador

Las cianobacterias, organismos procariotas fotosintéticos, pueden formar parte del fitoplancton de lagos y embalses y que en algunas ocasiones, si las condiciones de temperatura, pH y disponibilidad de luz son favorables y abundan los nutrientes, principalmente el fósforo y el nitrógeno, pueden dar lugar a proliferaciones (“blooms”). Los efectos negativos que se producen como consecuencia del crecimiento masivo de estas poblaciones, entre estas la producción de potentes toxinas por parte de algunas especies y teniendo en cuenta la extraordinaria importancia ecológica del lago de Ilopango, la realización de estudios que permitan conocer la abundancia, distribución y variación de cianobacterias potencialmente tóxicas (Anabaena sp, Oscillatoria sp y Microcystis sp), así como su relación con diversos parámetros físico-químicos como temperatura, pH, disponibilidad de luz, fósforo y nitrógeno, no sólo estaría plenamente justificada, sino que se revela como un instrumento totalmente imprescindible, debido a las diversas actividades que se desarrollan o están próximas a desarrollarse en el lago, entre estas la potabilización del agua. Con este fin se realizaron muestreos mensuales de cianobacterias (Anabaena sp, Microcystis sp y Oscillatoria sp), nitrógeno, fósforo, pH superficial, temperatura superficial del agua y penetración de la luz en los meses de noviembre de 2012 a febrero de 2013 a diferentes profundidades de la columna de agua en 7 puntos de muestreo previamente establecidos. Para determinar las diferencias significativas entre los puntos de muestreo y los meses muestreados se utilizó una Anova, asimismo se utilizó una correlación de Pearson para determinar la relación existente entre la abundancia de las cianobacterias y los parámetros muestreados. Los datos encontrados sugieren que la proliferación de cianobacterias en el lago de Ilopango es un fenómeno que no se presenta en época seca, probablemente por las bajas concentraciones de nitrógeno durante los meses muestreados, claramente relacionado con, la escasa precipitación que evita la llegada de nutrientes al lago por escorrentía; mientras que la influencia de los demás parámetros físico-químicos por sí solos, no constituyen un factor determinante en la proliferación de estos microorganismos.

Release of available nitrogen from river-discharged dissolved organic matter by heterotrophic bacteria associated with the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa

The use of riverine dissolved organic matter by the heterotrophic bacteria associated with a culture of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and release of simple nitrogen compounds were studied in an experimental series. Bacteria reduced the bulk of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) by half, but when associated with M. aeruginosa, DON was excreted and its concentration rose by 13%. During the stationary growth phase bacteria released ammonium, doubling the concentration of ammonia as well as of nitrates. Bacteria associated with M. aeruginosa consumed riverine DON and joined the ammonification and nitrification process, supplying cyanobacteria with simple nitrogen compounds.

New species of Ptychozoon (Sauria: Gekkonidae) from the Nicobar Archipelago, Indian Ocean

A new species of Ptychozoon is described from the central portion of the Nicobar Archipelago, Bay of Bengal, India. It has been formerly referred to P. kuhli, a species widely distributed in Sundaland. Ptychozoon nicobarensis sp. nov. reaches an SVL of 100.3 mm, and is diagnosable from congeneric species in showing the following combination of characters: dorsum with a tan vertebral stripe, lacking dark transverse bars; supranasals in contact; cutaneous expansions on sides of head; absence of predigital notch in preantebrachial cutaneous expansion; imbricate parachute support scales; four irregular rows of low, rounded enlarged scales on dorsum; 20-29 scales across widest portion of tail terminus; three indistinct chevrons on dorsum; 7-11 pairs of preanal pores; femoral pores absent; tail with an expanded terminal flap and weak lobe fusion at proximal border of tail terminus. The curious distribution of the new species, centred around the central Nicobars is speculated to be the result of competition with and/or predation by large gekkonid species, to the north (Gekko verreauxi) and south (G. smithii) of the group of islands occupied by the new Ptychozoon from the central Nicobars.

Evolution and detection of cyanobacterial hepatotoxin synthetase genes

Mass occurrences (blooms) of cyanobacteria are common in aquatic environments worldwide. These blooms are often toxic, due to the presence of hepatotoxins or neurotoxins. The most common cyanobacterial toxins are hepatotoxins: microcystins and nodularins. In freshwaters, the main producers of microcystins are Microcystis, Anabaena, and Planktothrix. Nodularins are produced by strains of Nodularia spumigena in brackish waters. Toxic and nontoxic strains of cyanobacteria co-occur and cannot be differentiated by conventional microscopy. Molecular biological methods based on microcystin and nodularin synthetase genes enable detection of potentially hepatotoxic cyanobacteria. In the present study, molecular detection methods for hepatotoxin-producing cyanobacteria were developed, based on microcystin synthetase gene E (mcyE) and the orthologous nodularin synthetase gene F (ndaF) sequences. General primers were designed to amplify the mcyE/ndaF gene region from microcystin-producing Anabaena, Microcystis, Planktothrix, and Nostoc, and nodularin-producing Nodularia strains. The sequences were used for phylogenetic analyses to study how cyanobacterial mcy genes have evolved. The results showed that mcy genes and microcystin are very old and were already present in the ancestor of many modern cyanobacterial genera. The results also suggested that the sporadic distribution of biosynthetic genes in modern cyanobacteria is caused by repeated gene losses in the more derived lineages of cyanobacteria and not by horizontal gene transfer. Phylogenetic analysis also proposed that nda genes evolved from mcy genes. The frequency and composition of the microcystin producers in 70 lakes in Finland were studied by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Potential microcystin producers were detected in 84% of the lakes, using general mcyE primers, and in 91% of the lakes with the three genus-specific mcyE primers. Potential microcystin-producing Microcystis were detected in 70%, Planktothrix in 63%, and Anabaena in 37% of the lakes. The presence and co-occurrence of potential microcystin producers were more frequent in eutrophic lakes, where the total phosphorus concentration was high. The PCR results could also be associated with various environmental factors by correlation and regression analyses. In these analyses, the total nitrogen concentration and pH were both associated with the presence of multiple microcystin-producing genera and partly explained the probability of occurrence of mcyE genes. In general, the results showed that higher nutrient concentrations increased the occurrence of potential microcystin producers and the risk for toxic bloom formation. Genus-specific probe pairs for microcystin-producing Anabaena, Microcystis, Planktothrix, and Nostoc, and nodularin-producing Nodularia were designed to be used in a DNA-chip assay. The DNA-chip can be used to simultaneously detect all these potential microcystin/nodularin producers in environmental water samples. The probe pairs detected the mcyE/ndaF genes specifically and sensitively when tested with cyanobacterial strains. In addition, potential microcystin/nodularin producers were identified in lake and Baltic Sea samples by the DNA-chip almost as sensitively as by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), which was used to validate the DNA-chip results. Further improvement of the DNA-chip assay was achieved by optimization of the PCR, the first step in the assay. Analysis of the mcy and nda gene clusters from various hepatotoxin-producing cyanobacteria was rewarding; it revealed that the genes were ancient. In addition, new methods detecting all the main producers of hepatotoxins could be developed. Interestingly, potential microcystin-producing cyanobacterial strains of Microcystis, Planktothrix, and Anabaena, co-occurred especially in eutrophic and hypertrophic lakes. Protecting waters from eutrophication and restoration of lakes may thus decrease the prevalence of toxic cyanobacteria and the frequency of toxic blooms.

Biodiversity and Phylogeny of Planktic Cyanobacteria in Temperate Freshwater Lakes

Currently, the classification used for cyanobacteria is based mainly on morphology. In many cases the classification is known to be incongruent with the phylogeny of cyanobacteria. The evaluation of this classification is complicated by the fact that numerous strains are only described morphologically and have not been isolated. Moreover, the phenotype of many cyanobacterial strains alters during prolonged laboratory cultivation. In this thesis, cyanobacterial strains were isolated from lakes (mainly Lake Tuusulanjärvi) and both morphology and phylogeny of the isolates were investigated. The cyanobacterial community composition in Lake Tuusulanjärvi was followed for two years in order to relate the success of cyanobacterial phenotypes and genotypes to environmental conditions. In addition, molecular biological methods were compared with traditional microscopic enumeration and their ability and usefulness in describing the cyanobacterial diversity was evaluated. The Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Trichormus strains were genetically heterogeneous and polyphyletic. The phylogenetic relationships of the heterocytous cyanobacteria were not congruent with their classification. In contrast to heterocytous cyanobacteria, the phylogenetic relationships of the Snowella and Woronichinia strains, which had not been studied before this thesis, reflected the morphology of strains and followed their current classification. The Snowella strains formed a monophyletic cluster, which was most closely related to the Woronichinia strain. In addition, a new cluster of thin, filamentous cyanobacterial strains identified as Limnothrix redekei was revealed. This cluster was not closely related to any other known cyanobacteria. The cyanobacterial community composition in Lake Tuusulanjärvi was studied with molecular methods [denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and cloning of the 16S rRNA gene], through enumerations of cyanobacteria under microscope, and by strain isolations. Microcystis, Anabaena/Aphanizomenon, and Synechococcus were the major groups in the cyanobacterial community in Lake Tuusulanjärvi during the two-year monitoring period. These groups showed seasonal succession, and their success was related to different environmental conditions. The major groups of the cyanobacterial community were detected by all used methods. However, cloning gave higher estimates than microscopy for the proportions of heterocytous cyanobacteria and Synechococcus. The differences were probably caused by the high 16S rRNA gene copy numbers in heterotrophic cyanobacteria and by problems in the identification and detection of unicellular cyanobacteria.

Nitrogen and carbon flows through Belandur lake - Role of Bellandur lake as a natural wetland treating Bangalore wastewater

Much of the Bangalore sewage is treated in three streams namely Bellandur (K&C Valley),Vrishabhavati and Hebbal-Nagavara stream systems. Among these it is estimated that out of a total of about 500MLD of partially treated sewage is let into the Bellandur tank. We estimate that a total of about 77t N non-industrial anthropogenic nitrogen efflux (mainly urine and excreta) in Bangalore city. This is distributed between that handled by the three sewage streams, soak-pits and land deposition. About 17-24.5t N enters the Bellandur tank daily. This has been happening over few decades and our observations suggest that this approximately 380ha tank is functioning as a C and N removal system with reasonable efficiency. The ammoniacal and nitrate nitrogen content of the water at the discharge points were estimated and found that over 80% of the nitrogen influx and over 75% of the C influx is removed by this tank system. We observed that there are three nitrogen sinks namely bacterial, micro-algal and macrophytes. The micro-algal fraction is dominated by Microcystis and Euglenophyceae members and they appear to constitute a significant fraction. Water hyacinth represents the single largest representative of the macrophytes. This tank has been functioning in this manner for over three decades. We attempt to study this phenomenon from a material balance approach and show that it is functioning with a reasonable degree of satisfaction as a natural wetland. As the population served and concomitant influx into this wetland increases, there is a potential for the system to be overloaded and to collapse. Therefore a better understanding of its function and the need for maintenance is discussed in the paper.

Ecological Assessment of Lentic Water Bodies of Bangalore

The restoration, conservation and management of water resources require a thorough understanding of what constitutes a healthy ecosystem. Monitoring and assessment provides the basic information on the condition of our waterbodies. The present work details the study carried out at two waterbodies, namely, the Chamarajasagar reservoir and the Madiwala Lake. The waterbodies were selected on the basis of their current use and locations. Chamarajasagar reservoir serves the purpose of supplying drinking water to Bangalore city and is located on the outskirts of the city surrounded by agricultural and forest land. On the other hand, Madiwala lake is situated in the heart of Bangalore city receiving an influx of pollutants from domestic and industrial sewage. Comparative assessment of the surface water quality of both were carried out by instituting the various physico–chemical and biological parameters. The physico-chemical analyses included temperature, transparency, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, nitrates, phosphates, sodium, potassium and COD measurements of the given waterbody. The analysis was done based on the standard methods prescribed (or recommended) by (APHA) and NEERI. The biological parameter included phytoplankton analysis. The detailed investigations of the parameters, which are well within the tolerance limits in Chamarajasagar reservoir, indicate that it is fairly unpolluted, except for the pH values, which indicate greater alkalinity. This may be attributed to the natural causes and the agricultural runoff from the catchment. On the contrary, the limnology of Madiwala lake is greatly influenced by the inflow of sewage that contributes significantly to the dissolved solids of the lake water, total hardness, alkalinity and a low DO level. Although, the two study areas differ in age, physiography, chemistry and type of inflows, they still maintain a phytoplankton distribution overwhelmingly dominated by Cyanophyceae members,specifically Microcystis aeruginosa. These blue green algae apparently enter the waterbodies from soil, which are known to harbour a rich diversity of blue green flora with several species common to limnoplankton, a feature reported to be unique to the south Indian lakes.Chamarajasagar water samples revealed five classes of phytoplankton, of which Cyanophyceae (92.15 percent) that dominated other algal forms comprised of one single species of Microcystis aeruginosa. The next major class of algae was Chlorophyceae (3.752 percent) followed by Dinophyceae (3.51 percent), Bacillariophyceae (0.47 percent) and a sparsely available and unidentified class (0.12 percent).Madiwala Lake phytoplankton, in addition to Cyanophyceae (26.20 percent), revealed a high density of Chlorophyceae members (73.44 percent) dominated by Scenedesmus sp.,Pediastrum sp., and Euglena sp.,which are considered to be indicators of organic pollution. The domestic and industrial sewage, which finds its way into the lake, is a factor causing organic pollution. As compared to the other classes, Euglenophyceae and Bacillariophyceae members were the lowest in number. Thus, the analysis of various parameters indicates that Chamarajasagar reservoir is relatively unpolluted except for the high percentage of Microcystis aeruginosa, and a slightly alkaline nature of water. Madiwala lake samples revealed eutrophication and high levels of pollution, which is clarified by the physico–chemical analysis, whose values are way above the tolerance limits. Also, the phytoplankton analysis in Madiwala lake reveals the dominance of Chlorophyceae members, which indicate organic pollution (sewage being the causative factor).

Identification of mycobacterial lectins from genomic data

Sixty-four sequences containing lectin domains with homologs of known three-dimensional structure were identified through a search of mycobacterial genomes. They appear to belong to the -prism II, the C-type, the Microcystis virdis (MV), and the -trefoil lectin folds. The first three always occur in conjunction with the LysM, the PI-PLC, and the -grasp domains, respectively while mycobacterial -trefoil lectins are unaccompanied by any other domain. Thirty heparin binding hemagglutinins (HBHA), already annotated, have also been included in the study although they have no homologs of known three-dimensional structure. The biological role of HBHA has been well characterized. A comparison between the sequences of the lectin from pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacteria provides insights into the carbohydrate binding region of the molecule, but the structure of the molecule is yet to be determined. A reasonable picture of the structural features of other mycobacterial proteins containing one or the other of the four lectin domains can be gleaned through the examination of homologs proteins, although the structure of none of them is available. Their biological role is also yet to be elucidated. The work presented here is among the first steps towards exploring the almost unexplored area of the structural biology of mycobacterial lectins. Proteins 2013. (c) 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Algal biofuel: bountiful lipid from Chlorococcum sp proliferating in municipal wastewater

Algae biofuel have emerged as viable renewable energy sources and are the potential alternatives to fossil-based fuels in recent times. Algae have the potential to generate significant quantities of commercially viable biofuel apart from treating wastewater. Three algal species, viz. Chlorococcum sp., Microcystis sp. and Phormidium sp. proliferating in wastewater ponds were isolated and cultured in the laboratory myxotrophically under similar wastewater conditions. Chlorococcum sp. attained a mean biomass productivity of 0.09 g. I(-1)d(-1) with the maximum `biomass density of 1.33 g I-1 and comparatively higher lipid content of 30.55% (w/w) on the ninth day of the culture experiment. Under similar conditions Microcystis sp. and Phormidium sp. attained mean biomass productivities of 0.058 and 0.063 g I-1 d(-1) with a total lipid content of 8.88% and 18.66% respectively. Biochemical composition (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and phosphates) variations and lipid accumulation studies were performed by comparison of the ratios of carbohydrate to protein; lipid to protein (L/P) and lipid to phosphates using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy which showed higher L/P ratio during the stationary phase of algal growth. Composition analysis of fatty acid methyl ester has been performed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Chlorococcum sp. with higher productivity and faster growth rate has higher lipid content with about 67% of saturated fatty acid dominated by palmitate (36.3%) followed by an unsaturate as linoleate (14%) and has proved to be an economical and viable feedstock for biofuel production compared to the other wastewater-grown species.

Assessment Method for Leaf Litters Allelopathic Effect on Cyanobacteria

A new bioassay technique combining leaf disk and softagar over-layer methods was developed to investigate the allelopathic effect of deciduous leaf litters on the growth of cyanobacteria ( Microcystis aeruginosa Kütz.). Bioactive substances exuded from leaf disks caused inhibitory plaques on the agar plate containing cyanobacteria , and the rate of diffusion depended on the specific leaf disk area. Most of the leaf litters collected around reservoirs in Japan showed inhibitory activity to M. aeruginosa , with Rhus trichocarpa Miq., Quercus variabilis Blume and Mallotus japonicus (Thunb.) Muell. Arg. being the strongest among the 22 tested species.(PDF has 4 pages.)

Lago Pellegrini. Caracteristicas limnologicas

Este trabajo trata el estudio biológico del lago Pellegrini y las características limnológicas del ambiente desde el punto de vista pesquero y turístico en el lapso 1980-1998. Se realizaron monitoreos quincenales de calidad de agua y mensuales de plancton, plaguicidas, bacteriológicos, etc. en estaciones de muestreo situadas en el lago propiamente dicho, en el afluente y alrededores. Se analizan los problemas de eutrofización presentes, en la búsqueda de ensayos que disminuyan el deterioro del ecosistema. Los resultados comprueban un proceso de eutrofización natural, agravado por la actividad humana, con florecimientos de algas cianobacterias (Géneros Microcystis y Anabaena) y una disminución de la productividad secundaria y en la población íctica.

An evaluation of the trophic status of the Shen Reservoir by an analysis of phytoplankton composition and water characteristics

In an effort to evaluate the production potential of an artificial impoundment, the phytoplankton of the Shen reservoir was sampled from November 1981 to June 1982 at three stations during three periods of distinct seasonal hydrographic characteristics. The samples were subsampled and quantified. Most of the phytoplankton were identified to the species level. There were in all 53 species comprising Chlorophyceae contributing 36.70% with species of Volvox, Pediastrum, Closterium, Staurodesmus and Ankistrodesmus as dominant species in this group. The Cyanophyceae contributed 30.00% with species of Microcystis, Nostoc , and Oscillatoria as the dominant species. An analysis of temporal and spatial changes in composition and abundance of the various groups showed that these were influenced by water temperature, sampling period and station. Based on the trophic status of the most abundant species, the composition of the phytoplankton is indicative of a tropical reservoir with a moderate productivity for fish culture

Toxic blue-green algae: The "problem" in perspective

The incidence of blue-green algal blooms and surface scum-formation are certainly not new phenomena. Many British and European authors have been faithfully describing the unmistakable symptoms of blue-green algal scums for over 800 years. There is no disputing that blue-green algal toxins are extremely harmful. Three quite separate categories of compound have been separated: neurotoxins; hepatotoxins and lipopolysaccharides. There is a popular association between blue-green algae and eutrophication. Certainly the main nuisance species - of Microcystis, Anabaena and Aphanizomenon are rare in oligotrophic lakes and reservoirs. Several approaches have been proposed for the control of blue-green algae. Distinction is made between methods for discharging algae already present (eg algicides; straw bales; viruses; parasitic fungi and herbivorous ciliates), and methods for averting an anticipated abundance in the future (phosphorous control, artificial circulation etc).

Hypertrophic phytoplankton: an overview

An overview is provided of studies on hypertrophic phytoplankton in order to explore the subject and to suggest uncovered areas of research in this increasingly important theme. The authors restrict themselves to stagnant environments, using a community criterion to define hypertrophic environments. They are defined as those whose yearly average of phytoplankton chlorophyll is equal to or higher than 100 mg per cubic metre of water. The paper deals with species composition, diversity, biomass, primary production, losses and seasonal succession of hypertrophic phytoplankton. Other topics, such as population dynamics and ecophysiological issues, either lack enough information to be considered or are well known, e.g. Microcystis and Oscillatoria ecophysiology.

四川黄龙杓兰属植物的传粉生物学

兰科植物传粉生物学的研究以往多集中于单个物种上，很少对两个以上的物种同时进行研究。但后一类研究对于理解一个地区或一个代表类群的传粉适应是大有裨益和非常必要的，毕竟单一种植物与其传粉者在一个居群或是一年中的相互关系所提供的有效信息是非常有限的。杓兰属Cypripedium L.是兰科植物中比较原始的类群，全世界约有50种;中国是杓兰属植物的分布中心，有30多种。但是，有关该属植物的传粉生物学研究集中在欧、美的种类，中国绝大部分物种尚未进行这方面的研究。本文通过对分布于四川省黄龙寺自然保护区的8种杓兰属植物的传粉生物学研究，探讨了该属植物的传粉机制、适应进化及生殖隔离等问题。 1． 杓兰属植物的繁育系统 虽然所研究的8种杓兰人工自交授粉均可以成功结实，但在自然条件下都必须依赖于昆虫才能结实成功，表明杓兰属植物的繁殖系统以异交授粉为主。 2． 杓兰属植物的传粉系统以及传粉系统的进化趋势 杓兰属植物一向被认为是典型的蜂类传粉物种，本文所包括的西藏杓兰C. tibeticum King ex Rolfe、离萼杓兰C. plectrochilum Franch.、绿花杓兰C. henryi Rolfe与褐花杓兰C. smithii Schltr.的传粉生物学研究也证明了这一点。但研究发现最进化的“无苞组”的3种杓兰，即无苞杓兰C. bardolphianum W. W. Smith et Farrer、小花杓兰C. micranthum Franch.与四川杓兰C. sichuanense Perner都是由蝇类传粉的，而黄花杓兰C. flavum P. F. Hunt et Summerh.则可由蜂类和蝇类共同传粉。结合杓兰的种间系统关系，本文认为杓兰属中存在从蜂类传粉系统向蝇类传粉系统的进化趋势。 3．杓兰属植物传粉系统的特化机制 传粉观察表明8种杓兰均有多种多样的访花昆虫，但只有1种或1类具有相同功能的昆虫能成为其传粉者。这说明杓兰属植物是具备特化传粉系统的种类。以离萼杓兰为例进行的花色、花香及花结构的分析表明，杓兰拥有特化的传粉者几乎完全是由于受到花结构的限制，特别是雄蕊到唇瓣底高度（AL）、柱头到唇瓣底高度（SL）、唇瓣入口直径（DL）与唇瓣出口宽度（EL）的大小。这些因素决定了昆虫是否能进入唇瓣，是否能碰触到柱头和花粉，是否能从出口挤出来。因此，杓兰的唇瓣的主要功能不仅是象原来所认为的作为“陷阱”来诱捕昆虫，而且同样作为一种促进产生“特化传粉”的机制而存在。 4． 杓兰属植物吸引昆虫的机制 杓兰属植物具有复杂的吸引昆虫的机制。离萼杓兰、黄花杓兰主要以泛化的食源性欺骗机制来吸引昆虫，绿花杓兰能通过其唇瓣和退化雄蕊的光滑特性诱使其传粉昆虫被动进入唇瓣中，西藏杓兰可以通过“筑巢式欺骗”来吸引昆虫，无苞杓兰则可通过模拟成熟果实来吸引其特化的传粉者—果蝇Drosophila spp.。 5． 杓兰属植物的花部特征与传粉系统的适应 在整个杓兰属内，不同种类植物的花色与花香和传粉者种类间没有统一的规律。但是，杓兰属植物的唇瓣大小与其传粉者大小之间存在比较明显的适应关系。体积最大的西藏杓兰、褐花杓兰与黄花杓兰由体型最大的熊蜂Bombus spp.传粉，体积中等的离萼杓兰、绿花杓兰、四川杓兰由中等大小的蜂或蝇传粉，而体积最小的无苞杓兰与小花杓兰由体型很小的果蝇传粉。 在杓兰属中，大部分种类的花粉只是粘性的团状，只有一部分能在一次访问中被昆虫带出，如黄花杓兰、西藏杓兰、离萼杓兰及绿花杓兰的花粉团。与此不同，在2个“无苞组”的杓兰，即无苞杓兰、小花杓兰中，它们的花粉凝聚成块状，而且它们的传粉昆虫(果蝇)的一次访问可带出一侧雄蕊的全部花粉。它们的花粉成块可能是对果蝇这类小昆虫传粉的一种适应。 6． 杓兰属植物的生殖隔离机制 本文的研究表明，杓兰属植物之间人工杂交授粉可以成功结实，它们主要是通过受精前隔离机制保持物种界限的。它们的受精前隔离机制多种多样。具有相同传粉者—果蝇的无苞杓兰与小花杓兰通过地理隔离机制保持物种界限; 同域的西藏杓兰与黄花杓兰通过利用不同大小的熊蜂作为传粉者来保持生殖隔离;同域的离萼杓兰与绿花杓兰可能通过花香成分的不同特化吸引同一属中不同种的传粉昆虫;而同域的西藏杓兰与褐花杓兰之间并不具备完善的生殖隔离机制。