Profiling of T-cell receptor signaling complex assembly in human CD4 T-lymphocytes using RP protein arrays.

The RP protein (RPP) array approach immobilizes minute amounts of cell lysates or tissue protein extracts as distinct microspots on NC-coated slide. Subsequent detection with specific antibodies allows multiplexed quantification of proteins and their modifications at a scale that is beyond what traditional techniques can achieve. Cellular functions are the result of the coordinated action of signaling proteins assembled in macromolecular complexes. These signaling complexes are highly dynamic structures that change their composition with time and space to adapt to cell environment. Their comprehensive analysis requires until now relatively large amounts of cells (>5 x 10(7)) due to their low abundance and breakdown during isolation procedure. In this study, we combined small scale affinity capture of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and RPP arrays to follow TCR signaling complex assembly in human ex vivo isolated CD4 T-cells. Using this strategy, we report specific recruitment of signaling components to the TCR complex upon T-cell activation in as few as 0.5 million of cells. Second- to fourth-order TCR interacting proteins were accurately quantified, making this strategy specially well-suited to the analysis of membrane-associated signaling complexes in limited amounts of cells or tissues, e.g., ex vivo isolated cells or clinical specimens.

Trapping of naive lymphocytes triggers rapid growth and remodeling of the fibroblast network in reactive murine lymph nodes.

Adaptive immunity is initiated in T-cell zones of secondary lymphoid organs. These zones are organized in a rigid 3D network of fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) that are a rich cytokine source. In response to lymph-borne antigens, draining lymph nodes (LNs) expand several folds in size, but the fate and role of the FRC network during immune response is not fully understood. Here we show that T-cell responses are accompanied by the rapid activation and growth of FRCs, leading to an expanded but similarly organized network of T-zone FRCs that maintains its vital function for lymphocyte trafficking and survival. In addition, new FRC-rich environments were observed in the expanded medullary cords. FRCs are activated within hours after the onset of inflammation in the periphery. Surprisingly, FRC expansion depends mainly on trapping of naïve lymphocytes that is induced by both migratory and resident dendritic cells. Inflammatory signals are not required as homeostatic T-cell proliferation was sufficient to trigger FRC expansion. Activated lymphocytes are also dispensable for this process, but can enhance the later growth phase. Thus, this study documents the surprising plasticity as well as the complex regulation of FRC networks allowing the rapid LN hyperplasia that is critical for mounting efficient adaptive immunity.

Preactivation of B lymphocytes does not enhance mouse mammary tumor virus infection.

We investigated whether mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) favors preactivated or naive B cells as targets for efficient infection. We have demonstrated previously that MMTV activates B cells upon infection. Here, we show that polyclonal activation of B cells leads instead to lower infection levels and attenuated superantigen-specific T-cell responses in vivo. This indicates that naive small resting B cells are the major targets of MMTV infection and that the activation induced by MMTV is sufficient to allow efficient infection.

Human effector CD8+ T lymphocytes express TLR3 as a functional coreceptor.

TLR are evolutionarily conserved molecules that play a key role in the initiation of innate antimicrobial immune responses. Through their influence on dendritic cell maturation, these receptors are also thought to indirectly shape the adaptive immune response. However, no data are currently available regarding both TLR expression and function in human CD8+ T cell subsets. We report that a subpopulation of CD8+ T cells, i.e., effector, but neither naive nor central memory cells, constitutively expresses TLR3. Moreover, the ligation of the receptor by a specific agonist in TLR3-expressing CD8+ T cells increased IFN-gamma secretion induced by TCR-dependent and -independent stimulation, without affecting proliferation or specific cytolytic activity. These results thereby suggest that TLR3 ligands can not only indirectly influence the adaptive immune response through modulation of dendritic cell activation, but also directly increase IFN-gamma production by Ag-specific CD8+ T cells. Altogether, the present work might open new perspectives for the use of TLR ligands as adjuvants for immunotherapy.

Malt1 protease inactivation efficiently dampens immune responses but causes spontaneous autoimmunity.

The protease activity of the paracaspase Malt1 has recently gained interest as a drug target for immunomodulation and the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. To address the consequences of Malt1 protease inactivation on the immune response in vivo, we generated knock-in mice expressing a catalytically inactive C472A mutant of Malt1 that conserves its scaffold function. Like Malt1-deficient mice, knock-in mice had strong defects in the activation of lymphocytes, NK and dendritic cells, and the development of B1 and marginal zone B cells and were completely protected against the induction of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Malt1 inactivation also protected the mice from experimental induction of colitis. However, Malt1 knock-in mice but not Malt1-deficient mice spontaneously developed signs of autoimmune gastritis that correlated with an absence of Treg cells, an accumulation of T cells with an activated phenotype and high serum levels of IgE and IgG1. Thus, removal of the enzymatic activity of Malt1 efficiently dampens the immune response, but favors autoimmunity through impaired Treg development, which could be relevant for therapeutic Malt1-targeting strategies.

CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells: from basic research to potential therapeutic use.

Regulatory T cells control immune responses to self- and foreign-antigens and play a major role in maintaining the balance between immunity and tolerance. This article reviews recent key developments in the field of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T (TREG) cells. It presents their characteristics and describes their range of activity and mechanisms of action. Some models of diseases triggered by the imbalance between TREG cells and effector pathogenic T cells are described and their potential therapeutic applications in humans are outlined.

The paracaspase MALT1: biological function and potential for therapeutic inhibition.

The paracaspase MALT1 has a central role in the activation of lymphocytes and other immune cells including myeloid cells, mast cells and NK cells. MALT1 activity is required not only for the immune response, but also for the development of natural Treg cells that keep the immune response in check. Exaggerated MALT1 activity has been associated with the development of lymphoid malignancies, and recently developed MALT1 inhibitors show promising anti-tumor effects in xenograft models of diffuse large B cell lymphoma. In this review, we provide an overview of the present understanding of MALT1's function, and discuss possibilities for its therapeutic targeting based on recently developed inhibitors and animal models.

CD40-stimulated B Lymphocytes Pulsed with Tumor Antigens Are Effective Antigen-presenting Cells That Can Generate Specific T Cells

Although they are considered as antigen presenting cells (APC), the role of antigen-unspecific B-lymphocytes in antigen presentation and T lymphocyte stimulation remains controversial. In this paper, we tested the capacity of normal human peripheral activated B cells to stimulate T cells using melanoma antigens or melanoma cell lysates. B lymphocytes activated through CD40 ligation and then pulsed with tumor antigens efficiently processed and presented MHC class II restricted peptides to specific CD4+ T cell clones. This suggests that CD40-activated B cells have the functional and molecular competence to present MHC class II epitopes when pulsed with exogenous antigens, thereby making them a relevant source of APC to generate T cells. To test this hypothesis, CD40-activated B cells were pulsed with a lysate prepared from melanoma cells and used to stimulate peripheral autologous T cells. Interestingly, T cells specific to melanoma antigens were generated. Further analysis of these T cell clones revealed that they recognized MHC class II restricted epitopes from tyrosinase, a known melanoma tumor antigen. The efficient antigen presentation by antigen-unspecific activated B cells was correlated with a down-regulation in the expression of HLA-DO, a B cell specific protein known to interfere with HLA-DM function. Because HLA-DM is important in MHC class II peptide loading, the observed decrease in HLA-DO may partially explain the enhanced antigen presentation following B-cell activation. Results globally suggest that when they are properly activated, antigen-unspecific B-lymphocytes can present exogenous antigens by MHC class II molecules and stimulate peripheral antigen-specific T cells. Antigen presentation by activated B cells could be exploited for immunotherapy by allowing the in vitro generation of T cells specific against antigens expressed by tumors or viruses.

Letters to the Editor: Correspondence re R. Lapointe et al., CD40-stimulated B Lymphocytes Pulsed with Tumor Antigens Are Effective Antigen-presenting Cells That Can Generate Specific T Cells. Cancer Res 2003;63:2836–43.

La réplique provient de Réjean Lapointe, Jacques Thibodeau et Patrick Hwu; Réjean Lapointe et Jacques Thibodeau sont affiliés à la faculté de médecine de l'Université de Montréal

L’impact de la grossesse sur l’amplitude et la diversité de la reconnaissance antigénique des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques dirigés contre le VIH-1

La transmission mère-enfant (TME) du VIH-1 est un des enjeux majeurs de la pandémie. Une meilleure compréhension de la réponse des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques CD8+ (LTC) VIH-spécifiques lors de la grossesse facilitera le design de stratégies optimales pour diminuer la TME. Notre objectif est donc de caractériser l’amplitude et la diversité de la reconnaissance antigénique des LTC VIH-spécifiques avant, pendant et après la grossesse chez des femmes infectées par le VIH-1. Nos résultats montrent pour la première fois que l’initiation et la progression de la grossesse, à elles seules, n'ont que peu d’influence sur l’amplitude et la diversité de la reconnaissance antigénique des réponses LTC en termes de production d’IFN‐. Ces résultats indiquent que les femmes infectées par le VIH conservent une immunocompétence durant leur grossesse, du moins dans le contexte d’un traitement antirétroviral efficace. Ceci pourrait éventuellement aider à promouvoir l’immunisation comme stratégie pour prévenir la TME du VIH‐1.

Adhesion and transcellular migration of neutrophils and B lymphocytes on fibroblasts

During tissue inflammation, infiltrated leukocytes may have physical contacts with fibroblasts. We observed that neutrophils and B lymphocytes adhered in a larger proportion than T cells on cultured fibroblasts. Microscopy showed that adhesion was also characterized by leukocyte engulfment by the fibroblasts. In migration assays, only neutrophils and B lymphocytes were selectively able to migrate through a fibroblast barrier. Adhesion and migration were increased by stimulation with tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA). Antibodies against ICAM-1/beta2 integrin blocked the interaction of neutrophils to fibroblasts. For B lymphocytes the couple VCAM-1/alpha4 integrin was also involved in this interaction. Human skin fibroblasts presented similar adhesion characteristics as rat cardiac fibroblasts. By measuring the distance between the border of migration holes and cadherin-positive adherens junctions, more than 65% of the holes correspond to the transcellular route over the paracellular route. Furthermore, vimentin staining revealed that the migration holes were highly nested by intermediate filaments in accordance with the transcellular route. Our results demonstrated that engulfment of neutrophils and B lymphocytes by fibroblasts resulted in selective passage by a transcellular route.

Étude du rôle de la MAP Kinase non-conventionnelle ERK3 dans le développement thymique et l'activation des lymphocytes T

Les voies de signalisation des MAP kinases (MAPK) conventionnelles jouent des rôles essentiels pendant le développement des lymphocytes T (LT) ainsi que lors de leur activation suite à la reconnaissance antigénique. En raison de ses différences structurelles ainsi que de son mode de régulation, ERK3 fait partie des MAPK dites non-conventionnelles. Encore aujourd’hui, les événements menant à l’activation de ERK3, ses substrats ou partenaires ainsi que sa fonction physiologique demeurent peu caractérisés. Nous avons entrepris dans cette thèse d’étudier le rôle de ERK3 lors du développement et de l’activation des LT en utilisant un modèle de souris déficient pour l’expression de ERK3. Nous avons premièrement établi que ERK3 est exprimée chez les thymocytes. Ensuite, nous avons évalué le développement thymique chez la souris ERK3-déficiente et nous avons observé une diminution significative de la cellularité aux étapes DN1, DP et SP CD4+ du développement des LT. La création de chimères hématopoïétiques ERK3-déficientes nous a permis de démontrer que la diminution du nombre de cellules observée aux étapes DN1 et DP est autonome aux thymocytes alors que le phénotype observé à l’étape SP CD4+ est dépendant de l’abolition simultanée de ERK3 dans l’épithélium thymique et dans les thymocytes. Une étude plus approfondie de l’étape DP nous a permis de démontrer qu’en absence de ERK3, les cellules DP meurent plus abondamment et accumulent des cassures doubles brins (DSB) dans leur ADN. De plus, nous avons démontré que ces cassures dans l’ADN sont réalisées par les enzymes RAG et qu’en absence de ces dernières, la cellularité thymique est presque rétablie chez la souris ERK3-déficiente. Ces résultats suggèrent que ERK3 est impliquée dans un mécanisme essentiel à la régulation des DSB pendant le réarrangement V(D)J de la chaîne  du récepteur des cellules T (RCT). Dans le deuxième article présenté dans cette thèse, nous avons montré que ERK3 est exprimé chez les LT périphériques, mais seulement suite à leur activation via le RCT. Une fois activés in vitro les LT ERK3-déficients présentent une diminution marquée de leur prolifération et dans la production de cytokines. De plus, les LT ERK3-déficients survivent de façon équivalente aux LT normaux, mais étonnamment, ils expriment des niveaux plus faibles de la molécule anti-apoptotique Bcl-2. Ces résultats suggèrent que la prolifération réduite des LT ERK3-déficients est la conséquence d’une altération majeure de leur activation. Ainsi, nos résultats établissent que ERK3 est une MAPK qui joue des rôles essentiels et uniques dans le développement thymique et dans l’activation des lymphocytes T périphériques. Grâce à ces travaux, nous attribuons pour la toute première fois une fonction in vivo pour ERK3 au cours de deux différentes étapes de la vie d’un LT.

Expression des SOCS-1 et SOCS-3 par les lymphocytes T humains en réponse à des cytokines immuno-modulatrices

Les cytokines jouent un rôle fondamental dans la régulation des processus biologiques via la cascade de signalisation JAK-STAT. Les « Suppressors of Cytokine Signalling » (SOCS), protéines intracellulaires, inhibent la voie JAK-STAT. Plusieurs études supportent leur implication dans des maladies immunitaires, mais peu d’informations sont disponibles sur leur expression par les lymphocytes T humains. Nous postulons que les cytokines Interféron-β(IFN-β) et Interleukine-27 (IL-27), dotées d’un potentiel immuno-régulateur, ont des rôles bénéfiques via l’induction des SOCS. L’impact de l’IFN-β et l’IL-27 sur l’expression des SOCS-1 et SOCS-3 par des cellules T CD8 et CD4 humaines a été étudié en utilisant des cellules sanguines de donneurs sains. L’expression de ces régulateurs a été évaluée aux niveaux de l’ARNm par qRT-PCR et protéique par immunocytochimie. Les SOCS-1 et SOCS-3 ont été rapidement induits en ARNm dans les deux types cellulaires en réponse à l’IFN-β ou l’IL-27 et une augmentation de l’expression a été confirmée au niveau protéique. Afin de mimer les thérapies à base d’IFN-β, les cellules T ont été exposées chroniquement à l’IFN-β. Après chaque ajout de cytokine les cellules T ont augmenté l’expression du SOCS-1, sans moduler le SOCS-3. L’IL-27 a induit les SOCS-1 et SOCS-3 préférentiellement dans les cellules T CD8 ; ceci corrèle avec des résultats du laboratoire démontrant une plus petite expression des récepteurs à l’IL-27 par les lymphocytes T CD4 que les CD8. Notre projet a permis d’élucider l’expression des SOCS dans deux populations de cellules T et de clarifier les mécanismes d’actions de l’IFN-β et l’IL-27.