169 resultados para Dictyostelium discoideum


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对生物模式的形成机制的探讨一直是生命科学特别是发育生物学的重要课题.目前已经积累了大量的多学科的研究数据并提出了一些的理论,但生物模式形成的真正机制仍然很不清楚而需更深入的探索.本文试图运用元胞自动机方法建立一个从单细胞及其行为到细胞与细胞、细胞与胞外环境相互作用下生物模式形成的模型.并应用此模型,基于"诱导开关"概念,提出一种新的离散模型来模拟盘基网柄菌(Dictyostelium discoideum)的聚集模式.

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A novel method for gene enrichment has been developed and applied to mapping the rRNA genes of two eucaryotic organisms. The method makes use of antibodies to DNA/RNA hybrids prepared by injecting rabbits with the synthetic hybrid poly(rA)•poly(dT). Antibodies which cross-react with non-hybrid nucleic acids were removed from the purified IgG fraction by adsorption on columns of DNA-Sepharose, oligo(dT)-cellulose, and poly(rA)-Sepharose. Subsequent purification of the specific DNA/RNA hybrid antibody was carried out on a column of oligo(dT)-cellulose to which poly(rA) was hybridized. Attachment of these antibodies to CNBr-activated Sepharose produced an affinity resin which specifically binds DNA/RNA hybrids.

In order to map the rDNA of the slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum, R-loops were formed using unsheared nuclear DNA and the 178 and 268 rRNAs of this organism. This mixture was passed through a column containing the affinity resin, and bound molecules containing R- loops were eluted by high salt. This purified rDN A was observed directly in the electron microscope. Evidence was obtained that there is a physical end to Dictyostelium rDN A molecules approximately 10 kilobase pairs (kbp) from the region which codes for the 268 rRNA. This finding is consistent with reports of other investigators that the rRNA genes exist as inverse repeats on extra-chromosomal molecules of DNA unattached to the remainder of the nuclear DNA in this organism.

The same general procedure was used to map the rRNA genes of the rat. Molecules of DNA which contained R-loops formed with the 188 and 288 rRNAs were enriched approximately 150- fold from total genomal rat DNA by two cycles of purification on the affinity column. Electron microscopic measurements of these molecules enabled the construction of an R-loop map of rat rDNA. Eleven of the observed molecules contained three or four R-loops or else two R-loops separated by a long spacer. These observations indicated that the rat rRNA genes are arranged as tandem repeats. The mean length of the repeating units was 37.2 kbp with a standard deviation of 1.3 kbp. These eleven molecules may represent repeating units of exactly the same length within the errors of the measurements, although a certain degree of length heterogeneity cannot be ruled out. If significantly shorter or longer repeating units exist, they are probably much less common than the 37.2 kbp unit.

The last section of the thesis describes the production of antibodies to non-histone chromosomal proteins which have been exposed to the ionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The presence of low concentrations of SDS did not seem to affect either production of antibodies or their general specificity. Also, a technique is described for the in situ immunofluorescent detection of protein antigens in polyacrylamide gels.

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分子系统发育分析的主要任务包括:(1)帮助建立生命之树(tree of life);(2)追踪基因和基因家族(gene family)的起源和进化, 以获知基因在进化过程中的功能分化和伴随发生的重要分子事件(key molecular events)和形态性状的关键创新(key innovation)。这两个方面在本研究中都有所涉及。对于前者,选用植物线粒体matR基因重建被子植物蔷薇类群的系统发育关系;对于后者,则以SET基因超家族为例,探讨其在真核生物中的进化分类以及与功能多样性的关系。 I 蔷薇类的分子系统学 蔷薇类(rosids)是基于分子数据建立的被子植物的主要分支之一,包含13个目,大约三分之一的被子植物物种。两个主要蔷薇类内部分支是豆类fabids(包含7个目)和锦葵类malvids(包含3个目)。然而,这两个分支内部,以及这两个分支与蔷薇类基部类群,包括牻牛儿苗目(Geraniales)、桃金娘目(Myrtales)和流苏子目(Crossosomatales)之间的关系大多是不清楚的。本研究中,我们选取174个物种来代表72个蔷薇类(rosids)的科,利用两个数据集,即线粒体matR单基因数据集和包括线粒体matR基因、两个质体基因(rbcL、 atpB)和一个核基因(18S rDNA) 的4基因数据集,重建蔷薇类在科以上分类阶元水平的系统发育关系。同时,还对线粒体matR基因的进化特征和用于大尺度系统发育分析的适合度和潜力进行了评价。 线粒体matR单基因数据支持malvids和大多数蔷薇类目的单系性质,然而,豆类(fabids)成员没有形成一个分支,其COM亚支,包括卫矛目(Celastrales)、酢浆草目(Oxalidales)、金虎尾目(Malpighiales)和蒜树科(Huaceae),分辨为锦葵类(malvids)的姐妹群。这个关系在最近根据花结构特征曾被提出过,但从未在之前的分子系统发育分析中得到分辨。4基因数据集支持首先是牻牛儿苗目(Geraniales),接着是桃金娘目(Myrtales)作为蔷薇类(rosids)的最基部的分支;流苏子目(Crossosomatales)是锦葵类(malvids)姐妹群,以及蔷薇类(rosids)的核心部分包括豆类(fabids),锦葵类(malvids)和流苏子目(Crossosomatales)。线粒体matR基因的进化特征分析显示,与两个叶绿体基因(rbcL 和atpB)比较,同义替代速率约是它们的1/4,而非同义替代速率接近于自身的同义替代速率,表明matR 基因具有松弛的选择压力。线粒体matR基因相对慢速的进化使非同源相似(homoplasious)突变减少,提高了系统发育信息的质量,同时,松弛的选择压力使非同义替代数量增加,弥补了慢速进化导致的系统发育信息数量不足的缺陷,这两个方面的结合使线粒体matR基因非常适用于被子植物在科以上水平的系统发育研究。 II SET基因超家族的系统发育基因组学分析 SET基因超家族基因编码含有SET结构域的蛋白,在真核生物中,SET-domain蛋白一般是多结构域(multi-domain)的。SET-domain蛋白具有对组蛋白H3和H4的N末端尾部进行赖氨酸残基甲基化修饰的酶活性;从异染色质形成到基因转录,甲基化的组蛋白广泛影响染色质水平的基因调控。依据SET结构域一级序列的相似性和结构域组织(domain architecture)特征,目前,SET-domain基因超家族被划分为4-7个家族。由于这些划分或者使用动物或者使用植物SET基因,只有少数其它类群的物种加入分析,因此这样的划分可能是不完整的。本研究采用系统发育基 因组学方法(phylogenomic approach),在真核生物范围内广泛取样,期望获得相对完整的SET-domain基因家族的 进化分类方案,在此基础上加深理解SET-domain基因的进化机制和功能多样性。 在提取了17个物种,代表5个真核超群的SET蛋白序列基础上,系统发育分析结合“结构域组织特征”鉴别了9个SET基因家族,其中一个是新的SET基因家族。以前的SET8和Class VI家族,及SMYD和SUV4-20家族分别合并为一个家族。大部分家族在进化过程中发生了2次以上的基因重复事件,通过获得不同的结构域产生具有不同功能的新基因。一个SET基因家族在进化过程中推测发生了从脊椎动物祖先向盘基网柄菌(Dictyostelium discoideum)的水平基因转移。

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Phagocytosis is a key process of the immune system. The human pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae is a well known example of a pathogen highly resistant to phagocytosis. A wealth of evidence demonstrates that the capsule polysaccharide (CPS) plays a crucial role in resistance to phagocytosis. The amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum shares with mammalian macrophages the ability to phagocytose and kill bacteria. The fact that K. pneumoniae is ubiquitous in nature and, therefore, should avoid predation by amoebae, poses the question whether K. pneumoniae employs similar means to counteract amoebae and mammalian phagocytes. Here we developed an assay to evaluate K. pneumoniae-D. discoideum interaction. The richness of the growth medium affected the threshold at which the cps mutant was permissive for Dictyostelium and only at lower nutrient concentrations the cps mutant was susceptible to predation by amoebae. Given the critical role of bacterial surface elements on host-pathogen interactions, we explored the possible contribution of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and outer membrane proteins (OMPs) to combat phagoyctosis by D. discoideum. We uncover that, in addition to the CPS, the LPS O-polysaccharide and the first core sugar participate in Klebsiella resistance to predation by D. discoideum. K. pneumoniae LPS lipid A decorations are also necessary to avoid predation by amoebae although PagP-dependent palmitoylation plays a more important role than the lipid A modification with aminoarabinose. Mutants lacking OMPs OmpA or OmpK36 were also permissive for D. discoideium growth. Except the LPS O-polysaccharide mutants, all mutants were more susceptible to phagocytosis by mouse alveolar macrophages. Finally, we found a correlation between virulence, using the pneumonia mouse model, and resistance to phagocytosis. Altogether, this work reveals novel K. pneumoniae determinants involved in resistance to phagocytosis and supports the notion that Dictyostelium amoebae might be useful as host model to measure K. pneumoniae virulence and not only phagocytosis. © 2013 March et al.

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La phagocytose est un processus cellulaire par lequel de larges particules sont internalisées dans une vésicule, le phagosome. Lorsque formé, le phagosome acquiert ses propriétés fonctionnelles à travers un processus complexe de maturation nommé la biogénèse du phagolysosome. Cette voie implique une série d’interactions rapides avec les organelles de l’appareil endocytaire permettant la transformation graduelle du phagosome nouvellement formé en phagolysosome à partir duquel la dégradation protéolytique s’effectue. Chez l’amibe Dictyostelium discoideum, la phagocytose est employée pour ingérer les bactéries de son environnement afin de se nourrir alors que les organismes multicellulaires utilisent la phagocytose dans un but immunitaire, où des cellules spécialisées nommées phagocytes internalisent, tuent et dégradent les pathogènes envahissant de l’organisme et constitue la base de l’immunité innée. Chez les vertébrés à mâchoire cependant, la transformation des mécanismes moléculaires du phagosome en une organelle perfectionnée pour l’apprêtement et la présentation de peptides antigéniques place cette organelle au centre de l’immunité innée et de l’immunité acquise. Malgré le rôle crucial auquel participe cette organelle dans la réponse immunitaire, il existe peu de détails sur la composition protéique et l’organisation fonctionnelles du phagosome. Afin d’approfondir notre compréhension des divers aspects qui relient l’immunité innée et l’immunité acquise, il devient essentiel d’élargir nos connaissances sur les fonctions moléculaire qui sont recrutées au phagosome. Le profilage par protéomique à haut débit de phagosomes isolés fut extrêmement utile dans la détermination de la composition moléculaire de cette organelle. Des études provenant de notre laboratoire ont révélé les premières listes protéiques identifiées à partir de phagosomes murins sans toutefois déterminer le ou les rôle(s) de ces protéines lors du processus de la phagocytose (Brunet et al, 2003; Garin et al, 2001). Au cours de la première étude de cette thèse (Stuart et al, 2007), nous avons entrepris la caractérisation fonctionnelle du protéome entier du phagosome de la drosophile en combinant diverses techniques d’analyses à haut débit (protéomique, réseaux d’intéractions protéique et ARN interférent). En utilisant cette stratégie, nous avons identifié 617 protéines phagosomales par spectrométrie de masse à partir desquelles nous avons accru cette liste en construisant des réseaux d’interactions protéine-protéine. La contribution de chaque protéine à l’internalisation de bactéries fut ensuite testée et validée par ARN interférent à haut débit et nous a amené à identifier un nouveau régulateur de la phagocytose, le complexe de l’exocyst. En appliquant ce modèle combinatoire de biologie systémique, nous démontrons la puissance et l’efficacité de cette approche dans l’étude de processus cellulaire complexe tout en créant un cadre à partir duquel il est possible d’approfondir nos connaissances sur les différents mécanismes de la phagocytose. Lors du 2e article de cette thèse (Boulais et al, 2010), nous avons entrepris la caractérisation moléculaire des étapes évolutives ayant contribué au remodelage des propriétés fonctionnelles de la phagocytose au cours de l’évolution. Pour ce faire, nous avons isolé des phagosomes à partir de trois organismes distants (l’amibe Dictyostelium discoideum, la mouche à fruit Drosophila melanogaster et la souris Mus musculus) qui utilisent la phagocytose à des fins différentes. En appliquant une approche protéomique à grande échelle pour identifier et comparer le protéome et phosphoprotéome des phagosomes de ces trois espèces, nous avons identifié un cœur protéique commun à partir duquel les fonctions immunitaires du phagosome se seraient développées. Au cours de ce développement fonctionnel, nos données indiquent que le protéome du phagosome fut largement remodelé lors de deux périodes de duplication de gènes coïncidant avec l’émergence de l’immunité innée et acquise. De plus, notre étude a aussi caractérisée en détail l’acquisition de nouvelles protéines ainsi que le remodelage significatif du phosphoprotéome du phagosome au niveau des constituants du cœur protéique ancien de cette organelle. Nous présentons donc la première étude approfondie des changements qui ont engendré la transformation d’un compartiment phagotrophe à une organelle entièrement apte pour la présentation antigénique.

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Der Endocytoseweg in Dictyostelium verläuft über definierte endosomale Reifestadien. Dabei werden die reifenden Endosomen im letzten Stadium durch eine Schicht aus filamentösem Aktin umhüllt. Über die biologische Funktion dieser Aktin-Hülle ist derzeit wenig bekannt. Zum weiteren Erkenntnisgewinn sollten daher unterschiedliche Aktin-interagierende Proteine an die endosomale Aktin-Hülle dirigiert und die sich daraus ergebenden Folgen untersucht werden. Dabei wurde der in Drengk et al., 2003 beschriebene Ansatz aufgegriffen, in dem Proteine durch die Fusion an Vacuolin an die späte endosomale Membran transportiert wurden. Die endosomale Lokalisation von DAip1 bewirkte den vollständigen Verlust der endosomalen Aktin-Hülle, ohne dabei das restliche zelluläre Cytoskelett zu beeinträchtigen. Dabei wird die Depolymerisation vermutlich über die nachgewiesene Interaktion von DAip1 mit dem Aktin-depolymerisierenden Protein Cofilin bewirkt. Einhergehend damit trat eine Aggregation der betroffenen Kompartimente, eine Verzögerung des endocytotischen Transits, sowie eine verstärkte Retention lysosomaler Enzyme auf. Diese Ergebnisse ließen auf eine Funktion der endosomalen Aktin-Hülle als Fusionsinhibitor oder in der Regulation von Recycling-Prozessen an späten Endosomen schließen. Die Verlängerung der endosomalen Verweilzeit des den Arp2/3-Komplex negativ regulierenden Proteins Coronin bewirkte dagegen keine offensichtlichen Veränderungen in den betroffenen Zellen. Diese Beoachtung könnte ein Indiz dafür sein, dass nach der Ausbildung der Aktin-Hülle keine weiteren essentiellen Arp2/3-abhängigen mehr an der endosomalen Membran auftreten. Die endosomale Lokalisation des Aktin-Crosslinkers ABP34 induzierte ebenfalls keine Abweichungen vom Wildtyp-Verhalten. Hierbei besteht allerdings die Möglichkeit, dass die Aktivität des Proteins durch die bereits zuvor beschriebene Calcium-Sensitivität beeintächtigt vorliegt. Eine Verstärkung der endosomalen Hülle konnte trotz der Verwendung unterschiedlicher Ansätze nicht hervorgerufen werden. Offensichtlich wirkt die zusätzliche Expression zentraler Regulatoren der Aktin-Polymerisation in der Zelle cytotoxisch. Die Bindung von VASP an die endosomale Membran bewirkte in den Zellen die Ausbildung voluminöser, cytoplasmatischer „Aktin-Bälle“. Diese riefen in den betroffenen Zellen Defekte in unterschiedlichen Aktin-abhängigen Prozessen, wie der Phago- und Pinocytose, sowie der Cytokinese hervor. Dabei gehen die beobachteten Veränderungen vermutlich auf die nachgewiesene Störung im Gleichgewicht zwischen G- und F-Aktin zurück. Obwohl die Aktin-Bälle an der endosomalen Membran entstehen, weisen sie nach vollendeter Entstehung keine inneren oder äußeren Membranen mehr auf und nehmen nicht mehr aktiv am endocytotischen Geschehen teil. Die nähere Charakterisierung offenbarte große Ähnlichkeit zu den mit unterschiedlichen neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen assoziierten Hirano-Bodies. Über das beobachtbare Lokalisationsverhalten der unterschiedlichen im ersten Teil der Arbeit eingesetzten Vacuolin-Hybridproteine ließ sich die Stärke der Lokalisationsinformationen der fusionierten Aktin-interagierenden Proteine miteinander vergleichen. Dies wurde verwendet, um die einzelnen Proteine gemäß ihres Targeting-Potenzials hierarchisch anzuordnen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden dieser Hierarchie die beiden cytoplasmatischen Targeting-Signale für Peroxisomen (PTS1) und den Zellkern (SV40-NLS) hinzugefügt. Der vorgenommene Vergleich dieser in vivo gewonnen Daten aus Dictyostelium mit unterschiedlichen in vitro-Bindungsstudien mit homologen Proteinen anderer Organismen zeigte eine erstaunlich gute Übereinstimmung. Diese Beobachtung lässt auf vergleichbare Targeting-Affinitäten innerhalb der Eukaryoten schließen und belegt, dass die zelluläre Lokalisation eines Proteins relativ sicher anhand der in ihm vorhandenen Bindungs-Affinitäten vorhergesagt werden kann. Durch die Kombination der in vivo- und in vitro-Daten war es auch ohne Kenntnis des Oligomerisierungsgrades und des Interaktionspartners erstmals möglich, die Bindungsstärke von Vacuolin an der endosomalen Membran auf einen definierten Bereich einzugrenzen.

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Seit der Entdeckung der Methyltransferase 2 als hoch konserviertes und weit verbreitetes Enzym sind zahlreiche Versuche zur vollständigen Charakterisierung erfolgt. Dabei ist die biologische Funktion des Proteins ein permanent umstrittener Punkt. In dieser Arbeit wird dnmA als sensitiver Oszillator bezüglich des Zellzyklus und weiterer Einflüsse gezeigt. Insgesamt liegt der Hauptfokus auf der Untersuchung der in vivo Charakterisierung des Gens, der endogenen subzellulären Verteilung, sowie der physiologischen Aufgaben des Proteins in vivo in D. discoideum. Um Hinweise auf Signalwege in vivo zu erhalten, in denen DnmA beteiligt ist, war es zunächst notwendig, eine detaillierte Analyse des Gens anzufertigen. Mit molekularbiologisch äußerst sensitiven Methoden, wie beispielsweise Chromatin‐IP oder qRT‐PCR, konnte ein vollständiges Expressionsprofil über den Zell‐ und Lebenszyklus von D. discoideum angelegt werden. Besonders interessant sind dabei die Ergebnisse eines ursprünglichen Wildtypstammes (NC4), dessen dnmA‐Expressionsprofil quantitativ von anderen Wildtypstämmen abweicht. Auch auf Proteinebene konnten Zellzyklus‐abhängige Effekte von DnmA bestimmt werden. Durch mikroskopische Untersuchungen von verschiedenen DnmA‐GFP‐Stämmen wurden Lokalisationsänderungen während der Mitose gezeigt. Weiterhin wurde ein DnmA‐GFP‐Konstrukt unter der Kontrolle des endogenen Promotors generiert, wodurch das Protein in der Entwicklung eindeutig als Zelltypus spezifisches Protein, nämlich als Präsporen‐ bzw. Sporenspezifisches Protein, identifiziert werden konnte. Für die in vivo Analyse der katalytischen Aktivität des Enzyms konnten nun die Erkenntnisse aus der Charakterisierung des Gens bzw. Proteins berücksichtigt werden, um in vivo Substratkandidaten zu testen. Es zeigte sich, dass von allen bisherigen Substrat Kandidaten lediglich die tRNA^Asp als in vivo Substrat bestätigt werden konnte. Als besondere Erkenntnis konnte hierbei ein quantitativer Unterschied des Methylierungslevels zwischen verschiedenen Wildtypstämmen detektiert werden. Weiterhin wurde die Methylierung sowie Bindung an einen DNA‐Substratkandidaten ermittelt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass DnmA äußerst sequenzspezifisch mit Abschnitten des Retrotransposons DIRS‐1 in vivo eine Bindung eingeht. Auch für den Substrakandidaten snRNA‐U2 konnte eine stabile in vitro Komplexbildung zwischen U2 und hDnmt2 gezeigt werden. Insgesamt erfolgte auf Basis der ermittelten Expressionsdaten eine erneute Charakterisierung der Aktivität des Enzyms und der Substrate in vivo und in vitro.

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Ras of complex proteins (ROC) domains were identified in 2003 as GTP binding modules in large multidomain proteins from Dictyostelium discoideum. Research into the function of these domains exploded with their identification in a number of proteins linked to human disease, including leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1) in Parkinson’s disease and cancer, respectively. This surge in research has resulted in a growing body of data revealing the role that ROC domains play in regulating protein function and signaling pathways. In this review, recent advances in the structural informa- tion available for proteins containing ROC domains, along with insights into enzymatic function and the integration of ROC domains as molecular switches in a cellular and organismal context, are explored.

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Enterobacteriaceae genomes evolve through mutations, rearrangements and horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The latter evolutionary pathway works through the acquisition DNA (GEI) modules of foreign origin that enhances fitness of the host to a given environment. The genome of E. coli IHE3034, a strain isolated from a case of neonatal meningitis, has recently been sequenced and its subsequent sequence analysis has predicted 18 possible GEIs, of which: 8 have not been previously described, 5 fully meet the pathogenic island definition and at least 10 that seem to be of prophagic origin. In order to study the GEI distribution of our reference strain, we screened for the presence 18 GEIs a panel of 132 strains, representative of E. coli diversity. Also, using an inverse nested PCR approach we identified 9 GEI that can form an extrachromosomal circular intermediate (CI) and their respective attachment sites (att). Further, we set up a qPCR approach that allowed us to determine the excision rates of 5 genomic islands in different growth conditions. Four islands, specific for strains appertaining to the sequence type complex 95 (STC95), have been deleted in order to assess their function in a Dictyostelium discoideum grazing assays. Overall, the distribution data presented here indicate that 16 IHE3034 GEIs are more associated to the STC95 strains. Also the functional and genetic characterization has uncovered that GEI 13, 17 and 19 are involved in the resistance to phagocitation by Dictyostelium d thus suggesting a possible role in the adaptation of the pathogen during certain stages of infection.

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Complex molecular events underlie vertebrate eye development and disease. The eye is composed of two major tissue types: the anterior and posterior segments. During development, the retinal progenitor cells differentiate into six neuronal and one non-neuronal cell types. These cell types later organize into the distinct laminar structure of the mature retina which occupies the posterior segment. In the developed anterior segment, both the ciliary body and trabecular meshwork regulate intraocular pressure created by the aqueous humor. The disruption in intraocular pressure can lead to a blinding condition called glaucoma. To characterize molecular mechanisms governing retinal development and glaucoma, two separate mouse knockout lines carrying mutations in math5 and myocilin were subjected to a series of in vivo analyses. ^ Math5 is a murine homologue of Drosophila atonal , a bHLH proneural gene essential for the formation of photoreceptor cells. The expression of math5 coincides with the onset of retinal ganglion cell differentiation. The targeted deletion of mouse math5 revealed that a null mutation inhibits the formation of a majority of the retinal ganglion cells. The mutation also interferes with the normal development of other retinal cell types such as amacrine, bipolar and photoreceptor cells. These results suggest that math5 is a proneural gene responsible for differentiation of retinal ganglion cells and may also have a role in normal development of other neuronal cell types within the retina. ^ Myocilin has two unique protein coding regions bearing homology to non-muscle myosin of Dictyostelium discoideum and to olfactomedin, an extracellular matrix molecule first described in the olfactory epithelium of the bullfrog. Recently, autosomal dominant forms of myocilin mutations have been found in individuals with primary open-angle glaucoma. The genetic linkage to glaucoma suggests a role of myocilin in normal intraocular pressure and ocular function. However, the analysis of mice heterozygous and homozygous for a targeted null mutation in myocilin indicates that it is dispensable for normal intraocular pressure or ocular function. Additionally, the lack of a discernable phenotype in both heterozygous and null mice suggests that haploinsufficiency is not a critical mechanism for MYOC-associated glaucoma in humans. Instead, disease-causing mutations likely act by gain of function. ^ In summary, these studies provide novel insights into the embryonic development of the vertebrate retina, and also begin to uncover the molecular mechanisms responsible for the pathogenesis of glaucoma. ^

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Raf Kinase Inhibitor Protein (RKIP) has been identified as a phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein capable of inhibiting Raf-1 kinase, an enzyme significant in cell proliferation and cancer development. When properly functioning, RKIP can mediate the expression of Raf-1 kinase and help prevent uncontrolled cell division. RKIP also has suggested, but unclear, roles in spindle fiber formation during mitosis, regulation of apoptosis, and cell motility. The Fenteany laboratory in the Chemistry Department identified a new small molecule, named Locostatin, as a cell migration inhibitor in mammalian cells, with RKIP as its primary molecular target. Dictyostelium discoideum possess two RKIP proteins, RKIP-A and RKIP-B. In order to begin to study the function of RKIP in D. discoideum and its role in cell motility, I created a mutant cell line which lacks a functional RKIP-A gene. In this paper, we show that removal of RKIP-A does not affect vegetative motility, but impairs chemotaxis and development in the presence of drug. Interestingly, RKIP-A knockout mutants appear more resistant to drug effects on vegetative motility than wild-type cells. More research is needed to reconcile these seemingly contrasting results, and to better develop a model for RKIP-A’s role in cell motility.

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The contraction of the actomyosin cytoskeleton, which is produced by the sliding of myosin II along actin filaments, drives important cellular activities such as cytokinesis and cell migration. To explain the contraction velocities observed in such physiological processes, we have studied the contraction of intact cytoskeletons of Dictyostelium discoideum cells after removing the plasma membrane using Triton X-100. The technique developed in this work allows for the quantitative measurement of contraction rates of individual cytoskeletons. The relationship of the contraction rates with forces was analyzed using three different myosins with different in vitro sliding velocities. The cytoskeletons containing these myosins were always contractile and the contraction rate was correlated with the sliding velocity of the myosins. However, the values of the contraction rate were two to three orders of magnitude slower than expected from the in vitro sliding velocities of the myosins, presumably due to internal and external resistive forces. The contraction process also depended on actin cross-linking proteins. The lack of α-actinin increased the contraction rate 2-fold and reduced the capacity of the cytoskeleton to retain internal materials, while the lack of filamin resulted in the ATP-dependent disruption of the cytoskeleton. Interestingly, the myosin-dependent contraction rate of intact contractile rings is also reportedly much slower than the in vitro sliding velocity of myosin, and is similar to the contraction rates of cytoskeletons (different by only 2–3 fold), suggesting that the contraction of intact cells and cytoskeletons is limited by common mechanisms.

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In several cell types, an intriguing correlation exists between the position of the centrosome and the direction of cell movement: the centrosome is located behind the leading edge, suggesting that it serves as a steering device for directional movement. A logical extension of this suggestion is that a change in the direction of cell movement is preceded by a reorientation, or shift, of the centrosome in the intended direction of movement. We have used a fusion protein of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and γ-tubulin to label the centrosome in migrating amoebae of Dictyostelium discoideum, allowing us to determine the relationship of centrosome positioning and the direction of cell movement with high spatial and temporal resolution in living cells. We find that the extension of a new pseudopod in a migrating cell precedes centrosome repositioning. An average of 12 sec elapses between the initiation of pseudopod extension and reorientation of the centrosome. If no reorientation occurs within approximately 30 sec, the pseudopod is retracted. Thus the centrosome does not direct a cell’s migration. However, its repositioning stabilizes a chosen direction of movement, most probably by means of the microtubule system.

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The Mycetozoa include the cellular (dictyostelid), acellular (myxogastrid), and protostelid slime molds. However, available molecular data are in disagreement on both the monophyly and phylogenetic position of the group. Ribosomal RNA trees show the myxogastrid and dictyostelid slime molds as unrelated early branching lineages, but actin and β-tubulin trees place them together as a single coherent (monophyletic) group, closely related to the animal–fungal clade. We have sequenced the elongation factor-1α genes from one member of each division of the Mycetozoa, including Dictyostelium discoideum, for which cDNA sequences were previously available. Phylogenetic analyses of these sequences strongly support a monophyletic Mycetozoa, with the myxogastrid and dictyostelid slime molds most closely related to each other. All phylogenetic methods used also place this coherent Mycetozoan assemblage as emerging among the multicellular eukaryotes, tentatively supported as more closely related to animals + fungi than are green plants. With our data there are now three proteins that consistently support a monophyletic Mycetozoa and at least four that place these taxa within the “crown” of the eukaryote tree. We suggest that ribosomal RNA data should be more closely examined with regard to these questions, and we emphasize the importance of developing multiple sequence data sets.

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Subunit oligomerization of many proteins is mediated by coiled-coil domains. Although the basic features contributing to the thermodynamic stability of coiled coils are well understood, the mechanistic details of their assembly have not yet been dissected. Here we report a 13-residue sequence pattern that occurs with limited sequence variations in many two-stranded coiled coils and that is absolutely required for the assembly of the Dictyostelium discoideum actin-bundling protein cortexillin I and the yeast transcriptional activator GCN4. The functional relationship between coiled-coil “trigger” sequences was manifested by replacing the intrinsic trigger motif of GCN4 with the related sequence from cortexillin I. We demonstrate that these trigger sequences represent autonomous helical folding units that, in contrast to arbitrarily chosen heptad repeats, can mediate coiled-coil formation. Aside from being of general interest for protein folding, trigger motifs should be of particular importance in the protein de novo design.