Entropy application to improve construction finance decisions

In financial decision-making processes, the adopted weights of the objective functions have significant impacts on the final decision outcome. However, conventional rating and weighting methods exhibit difficulty in deriving appropriate weights for complex decision-making problems with imprecise information. Entropy is a quantitative measure of uncertainty and has been useful in exploring weights of attributes in decision making. A fuzzy and entropy-based mathematical approach is employed to solve the weighting problem of the objective functions in an overall cash-flow model. The multiproject being undertaken by a medium-size construction firm in Hong Kong was used as a real case study to demonstrate the application of entropy. Its application in multiproject cash flow situations is demonstrated. The results indicate that the overall before-tax profit was HK$ 0.11 millions lower after the introduction of appropriate weights. In addition, the best time to invest in new projects arising from positive cash flow was identified to be two working months earlier than the nonweight system.

Tendering: optimization and rationality

There have been various techniques published for optimizing the net present value of tenders by use of discounted cash flow theory and linear programming. These approaches to tendering appear to have been largely ignored by the industry. This paper utilises six case studies of tendering practice in order to establish the reasons for this apparent disregard. Tendering is demonstrated to be a market orientated function with many subjective judgements being made regarding a firm's environment. Detailed consideration of 'internal' factors such as cash flow are therefore judged to be unjustified. Systems theory is then drawn upon and applied to the separate processes of estimating and tendering. Estimating is seen as taking place in a relatively sheltered environment and as such operates as a relatively closed system. Tendering, however, takes place in a changing and dynamic environment and as such must operate as a relatively open system. The use of sophisticated methods to optimize the value of tenders is then identified as being dependent upon the assumption of rationality, which is justified in the case of a relatively closed system (i.e. estimating), but not for a relatively open system (i.e. tendering).

Policy making without legislating: the self-regulation of commercial property leasing

The terms of a commercial property lease covers aspects such as rent, alterations to premises and the ability to leave; consequently they have a significant impact on cash flow and the ability of a business to develop. In contrast to the heavily-legislated residential sector, commercial landlords and tenants in the UK are largely free to negotiate the terms of their contract. Yet, since the property crash of 1989/90, successive governments have taken an interest in commercial leasing; in particular there is a desire to see landlords being more flexible. UK Government policy in this area has been pursued through industry self-regulation rather than legislation; since 1995 there have been three industry codes of practice on leasing. These codes are sanctioned by government and monitored by them. Yet, 15 years after the first code was launched, many in the industry see the whole code concept as ineffective and unlikely to ever achieve changes to certain aspects of landlord behaviour. This paper is the first step in considering the lease codes in the wider context of industry self-regulation. The aim of the paper is twofold: First a framework is created using the literature on industry self-regulation from various countries and industries which suggests key criteria to explain the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of self-regulation. This is then applied to the UK lease codes based on research carried out by the authors for the UK Government to monitor the success of all three codes. The outcome is a clearer understanding of the possibilities and limitations of using a voluntary solution to achieve policy aims within the property industry.

Data uncertainty in real estate forecasting

The rapid expansion of the TMT sector in the late 1990s and more recent growing regulatory and corporate focus on business continuity and security have raised the profile of data centres. Data centres offer a unique blend of occupational, physical and technological characteristics compared to conventional real estate assets. Limited trading and heterogeneity of data centres also causes higher levels of appraisal uncertainty. In practice, the application of conventional discounted cash flow approaches requires information about a wide range of inputs that is difficult to derive from limited market signals or estimate analytically. This paper outlines an approach that uses pricing signals from similar traded cash flows is proposed. Based upon ‘the law of one price’, the method draws upon the premise that two identical future cash flows must have the same value now. Given the difficulties of estimating exit values, an alternative is that the expected cash flows of data centre are analysed over the life cycle of the building, with corporate bond yields used to provide a proxy for the appropriate discount rates for lease income. Since liabilities are quite diverse, a number of proxies are suggested as discount and capitalisation rates including indexed-linked, fixed interest and zero-coupon bonds. Although there are rarely assets that have identical cash flows and some approximation is necessary, the level of appraiser subjectivity is dramatically reduced.

Valuation and arbitrage

The use of discounted cash flow (DCF) methods in investment valuation and appraisal is argued by many academics as being rational and more rigorous than the traditional capitalisation model. However those advocates of DCF should be cautious in their claims for rationality. The various DCF models all rely upon an all-encompassing equated yield (IRR) within the calculation. This paper will argue that this is a simplification of the risk perception which the investor places on the income profile from property. In determining the long term capital value of a property an 'average' DCF method will produce the 'correct' price, however, the individual short term values of each cash-flow may differ significantly. In the UK property market today, where we are facing a period in which prices are not expected to rise generally at the same rate or with such persistence as hitherto, investors and tenants are increasingly concerned with the down side implications of rental growth and investors may indeed be interested in trading property over a shorter investment horizon than they had originally planned. The purpose of this paper is therefore to bring to the analysis a rigorous framework which can be used to analyse the constituent cash flows within the freehold valuation. We show that the arbitrage analysis lends itself to segregating the capital value of the cash flows in a way which is more appropriate for financial investors

A critical review of methodologies for measuring rental depreciation applied to UK commercial real estate

Real estate depreciation continues to be a critical issue for investors and the appraisal profession in the UK in the 1990s. Depreciation-sensitive cash flow models have been developed, but there is a real need to develop further empirical methodologies to determine rental depreciation rates for input into these models. Although building quality has been found to be an important explanatory variable in depreciation it is very difficult to incorporate it into such models or to analyse it retrospectively. It is essential to examine previous depreciation research from real estate and economics in the USA and UK to understand the issues in constructing a valid and pragmatic way of calculating rental depreciation. Distinguishing between 'depreciation' and 'obsolescence' is important, and the pattern of depreciation in any study can be influenced by such factors as the type (longitudinal or crosssectional) and timing of the study, and the market state. Longitudinal studies can analyse change more directly than cross-sectional studies. Any methodology for calculating rental depreciation rate should be formulated in the context of such issues as 'censored sample bias', 'lemons' and 'filtering', which have been highlighted in key US literature from the field of economic depreciation. Property depreciation studies in the UK have tended to overlook this literature, however. Although data limitations and constraints reduce the ability of empirical property depreciation work in the UK to consider these issues fully, 'averaging' techniques and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression can both provide a consistent way of calculating rental depreciation rates within a 'cohort' framework.

Performance-based contracting in the construction sector

Construction procurement is complex and there is a very wide range of options available to procurers. Inappropriate choices about how to procure may limit practical opportunities for innovation. In particular, traditional approaches to construction procurement set up many obstacles for technology suppliers to provide innovative solutions. This is because they are often employed as sub-contractors simply to provide and install equipment to specifications developed before the point at which they become involved in a project. A research team at the University of Reading has developed a procurement framework that comprehensively defines the various options open to procurers in a more fine-grained way than has been known in the past. This enables informed decisions that can establish tailor-made procurement approaches that take into account the needs of specific clients. It enables risk and reward structures to be aligned so that contracts and payment mechanisms are aligned precisely with what a client seeks to achieve. This is not a “one-size-fits-all” approach. Rather, it is an approach that enables informed decisions about how to organize individual procurements that are appropriate to particular circumstances, acknowledging that they differ for each client and for each procurement exercise. Within this context, performance-based contracting (PBC) is explored in terms of the different ways in which technology suppliers within constructed facilities might be encouraged and rewarded for the kinds of innovation sought by the ultimate clients. Examples from various industry sectors are presented, from public sector and from private sector, with a commentary about what they sought to achieve and the extent to which they were successful. The lessons from these examples are presented in terms of feasibility in relation to financial issues, governance, economics, strategic issues, contractual issues and cash flow issues for clients and for contractors. Further background documents and more detailed readings are provided in an appendix for those who wish to find out more.

Business life cycle and capital structure: evidence from Chinese manufacturing firms

This paper uses a panel data-fixed effect approach and data collected from Chinese public manufacturing firms between 1999 and 2011 to investigate the impacts of business life cycle stages on capital structure. We find that cash flow patterns capture more information on business life cycle stages than firm age and have a stronger impact on capital structure decision-making. We also find that the adjustment speed of capital structure varies significantly across life cycle stages and that non-sequential transitions over life cycle stages play an important role in the determination of capital structure. Our study indicates that it is important for policy-makers to ensure that products and financial markets are well-balanced.

Administração baseada em valor : uma abordagem conceitual comparada com a realidade de uma empresa do ramo de telecomunicações

O presente trabalho trata da Administração Baseada em Valor (VBM do inglês Value Based Management), que é uma ferramenta de auxílio à administração de empresas, que busca a identificação de value drivers, que são controles internos a serem monitorados, que devem abranger os principais pontos vistos pelo mercado como criadores de valor, pois o objetivo central da VBM é a majoração de valor para o acionista. A VBM também se utiliza do fluxo de caixa descontado (DCF do inglês Discounted Cash Flow). O objetivo central desta dissertação é fazer uma análise comparativa da estrutura interna de funcionamento e acompanhamento e dos controles de uma organização do segmento de telecomunicações com a filosofia da VBM, identificando o distanciamento de uma para com a outra. A empresa pesquisada é a Dígitro Tecnologia Ltda., de Florianópolis, que não utiliza a VBM. É uma pesquisa quantitativa e foi desenvolvida através do método de estudo de caso. Sua investigação foi dividida em três pontos principais: (1) a identificação, na empresa, da estrutura básica necessária para a implantação da Administração Baseada em Valor, (2) os itens necessários para se montar um DCF e (3) os controles internos possuídos pela organização, que possam servir como value drivers ou suas intenções de implantar controles. O estudo de caso foi único e exploratório, contando com a aplicação de entrevistas semi-estruturadas, observação direta e coleta de documentos. Conclui-se que a organização pesquisada está distante da filosofia da VBM, porém, com intenção de utilizar-se de inúmeros conceitos da Administração Baseada em Valor para auxiliar sua gestão.

Liquidez e fluxo de caixa: um estudo teórico sobre alguns elementos que atuam no processo de formação do caixa e na determinação do nível de liquidez de empresas privadas não financeiras

O trabalho procura mapear e interpretar o processo de formação de caixa decompondo e analisando as atividades que contribuem para liberar ou retirar recursos do fluxo de caixa. Procura também avançar no problema da determinação do nível ótimo de liquidez que deve ser mantido pelas empresas.

Gerenciamento de risco em empresas não financeiras: aplicações na indústria petrolífera

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é a criação de um modelo teórico para a mensuração do fluxo de caixa em risco (CFaR) em instituições não financeiras, e sua aplicação na indústria de óleo e gás. Através deste modelo a empresa deve ser capaz de observar, através de seu fluxo de caixa, a probabilidade de dispor ou não de recursos para honrar seus compromissos. Deve-se analisar os métodos utilizados para gerenciamento de risco (VaR, CFaR e EaR) e aplicar um modelo de CFaR. Após a aplicação desta métrica, pode-se analisar os resultados encontrados. Será utilizado como base para o modelo proposto um paper publicado no Jornal of Applied Corporate Finance intitulado “Exposure-Based Cash-Flow-at-Risk: An Alternative to VaR for Industrial Companies”. Foi observado que o CFaR vem ganhando mais popularidade na gestão de risco das grandes empresas, demonstrando a exposição ao risco destas empresas e viabilizando a uma melhor tomada de decisão como utilizar o hedge de forma mais eficiente.

Opções reais: exemplo de aplicação para avaliação de reservas petrolíferas

Este trabalho teve como objetivo incluir flexibilidades gerenciais (tais como técnicas de injeção de gás e água) na avaliação de reservatórios. Concluimos que esta técnicas podem aumentar o valor dos reservatórios em até 25% segundo a teoria de opções reais. A principal vantagem da metodologia de teoria de opções face a tradicional técnica de fluxo de caixa descontado é levar em conta as questões operacionais da indústria do petróleo. Utilizamos dois modelos clássicos para a precificação de reservatórios de petróleo, e aplicamos uma análise de sensibilidade para determinarmos quais fatores são mais relevantes no seu valor econômico. Como era de se esperar em ambos os modelos, o tempo de concessão, bem como a taxa de convenience e/ou dividend yield foram os fatores mais importantes.

Mecanismos de recompra de ações e expropriação de acionistas minoritários - evidência do Brasil

Este artigo examina o impacto das recentes programas de recompra de ações sobre a expropriação de acionistas minoritários. Recentemente, houve 12 ofertas de recompra de ações cujo controle foi adquirido por investidores estratégicos estrangeiros ou por consórcios para comprar empresas privatizadas. Dois exemplos são: (i) a compra do controle da Lojas Renner, empresa de varejo da família Renner pela J. C. Penney; e (ii) Cargill comprando o controle da Solorrico, uma empresa de fertilizantes controlada por uma família. Paralelamente, a CVM emitiu a resolução #299 para evitar a expropriação de acionistas minoritários. Nós conjeturamos que pequenas e médias empresas com baixo crescimento, baixa alavancagem, e propriedade concentrada são candidatos mais prováveis para um "takeover" com maior probabilidade de expropriação. Isto explica parcialmente a falta de liquidez e o alto desconto na oferta pública de ações no mercado acionário brasileiro.

Avaliação de empresas por fluxo de caixa descontado: o impacto dos ativos intangíveis no valor da empresa

Ao mesmo tempo que os ativos intangíveis têm sido amplamente discutidos e apresentados como condutores de sucesso, ainda são poucas as reflexões sobre a influência destes ativos no valor das empresas. Este trabalho surge portanto com o objetivo de identificar uma maneira de se contemplar os ativos intangíveis no valor de uma empresa, quando a mesma é avaliada pelo método de Fluxo de Caixa Descontado. A partir desta metodologia foram analisadas como os intangíveis marca, reputação, redes e alianças estratégicas, tecnologias e processos, capital humano, capital intelectual, inovação, adaptabilidade, cultura organizacional, liderança, responsabilidade socioambiental, e comunicação e transparência podem impactar o valor da empresa, e como eles relacionam-se entre si.

Cooperativa como forma de melhor viabilizar os produtores de maçã: um projeto para a região do muícípio de vacaria / RS

The association in a form of cooperative can become a guarantee factor to the activities of the small and medium producers of the apple culture in the region of Vacaria-RS, Brazil. The study shows the problems the small and medium producers that grow apples in the city have. After an overview of the literature, the thesis presents a project of a hypothetical structure with the objective of evaluating the financial and economic viability of a cooperative. In this stage the utilized methodology was the collected data available between representatives of the sector and local companies that operate on this activity. The available data was used to construct a cash flow ¿ projecting costs and expenses to an alleged project; utilizing on the sequence to the evaluation the Net Present Value Method ( NPV / Valor Presente Líquido ), the Internal Rate of Return ( IRR / Taxa Interna de Retorno ) and Pay Back ( Período de Recuperação do Investimento ¿ PRI ). The results of the economic and financial evaluation obtained reveal the acceptance of the proposed project. However, on the exemplification phase of the cooperatives that work in other regions, the social, institutional and organizational aspects showed as important as the financial aspects of the project.