L'accès des consommateurs à la justice: de la résolution extrajudiciaire des conflits de consommation à la procédure collective : étude de droit suisse et droit comparé

INTRODUCTION : 1. L'OBJET ET L'INTÉRÊT DE LA THÈSE : DES BARRIÈRES D'ACCÈS À LA JUSTICE L'accès à la justice est un droit fondamental garanti par les art. 29a Cst. et 6 CEDH. Il s'agit d'un droit social mis en place par l'avènement de l'Etat providence qui accorde à chacun le droit à ce qu'un tribunal connaisse de toute contestation relative à ses droits et obligations de caractère civil. Aussi a-t-il pour effet de rendre efficace la législation mise en place par un Etat. Ainsi dans le cas particulier du droit de la consommation, l'élaboration des règles de droit matériel ne suffirait pas à concrétiser la protection des consommateurs voulue par le constituant et le législateur fédéral si une voie d'accès à la justice n'était pas ouverte afin de permettre aux consommateurs dont les droits sont violés d'en obtenir réparation. Si le droit formel permet à chacun de poursuivre la réalisation de ses droits par la voie judiciaire, y compris pour les consommateurs, il n'en demeure pas moins que ces derniers, dans la pratique, rencontrent plusieurs obstacles qui, souvent, les découragent de faire valoir leurs droits en justice. En effet, les tribunaux, victimes de leur succès, ont de plus en plus de peine à faire face à la masse des litiges qui leur sont soumis. L'engorgement de l'institution judiciaire est responsable de longs délais avant qu'une affaire soit jugée. A cela s'ajoutent des problèmes d'ordre financier : le coût de la justice comprenant le coût de la consultation juridique et de la représentation, des frais de consultation d'experts qui, parfois, peuvent dépasser le montant même du litige, sans oublier le risque, pour le consommateur, de devoir assurer, en cas d'échec du procès, les frais de l'autre partie. Puis on trouve des barrières d'ordre psychologique liées à la complexité et au formalisme qui accompagnent certaines procédures judiciaires civiles. Enfin, il y a la situation très complexe du litige revêtant un caractère intercantonal ou international (litiges transfrontaliers). S'agissant de litiges de faible valeur litigieuse (petits litiges ou small claims en anglais), ces barrières prennent une importance telle que de nombreux consommateurs renoncent tout simplement à faire valoir leurs droits en justice et subissent parfois la violation de ceux-ci. La valeur limitée de l'enjeu économique du litige peut rendre la durée de la procédure judiciaire démesurée et son coût disproportionné. En ce qui concerne le coût de la justice, nous illustrons ce propos par l'exemple reproduit sous l'annexe I ci-dessous. Il est également bon de signaler une étude couvrant 15 Etats membres de l'Union européenne réalisée en 1995 par la Commission européenne selon laquelle " le coût moyen (frais de justice + frais d'avocat, hors TVA) d'un règlement judiciaire d'un litige intracommunautaire portant sur un montant de 2'000 écus s'élève, dans la meilleure des hypothèses pour la partie demanderesse, à un montant d'environ 2'500 écus ". Après avoir relevé l'importance de l'accès à la justice pour le consommateur et les différents obstacles qui se dressent sur son chemin, nous allons nous intéresser aux solutions proposées pour minimiser voire supprimer ces barrières. A cet égard, on se posera la question de savoir dans quelle mesure les moyens extrajudiciaires, tels que des institutions d'ombudsmans et des organismes paritaires existant dans certains secteurs de la consommation, peuvent constituer des alternatives efficaces à la saisine des tribunaux. Puis on se demandera de quelle manière il faut alléger les formalités de procédure afin de permettre aux consommateurs non assistés de mandataires professionnels de saisir la justice et par-là même de diminuer le coût lié à celle-ci. Enfin, vu les difficultés qu'affrontent les consommateurs agissant individuellement, la question de l'opportunité de procédures collectives sera abordée. Comme ces interrogations touchent de près ou de loin les alinéas 2 et 3 de l'art. 97 Cst. nous avons jugé opportun d'exposer à titre liminaire la genèse de cette disposition. De plus, comme celui qui entreprend de traiter l'accès des consommateurs à la justice se doit de commencer par définir ce que l'on entend par consommateur, nous aborderons les notions de consommateur et de litige de consommation avant d'entrer dans le vif de la matière.

Iowa 2008 Summer Storms After Action Report, April 27, 2009

In the summer of 2008, the state of Iowa suffered from a series of severe storms that produced tornadoes and heavy rainfall, which resulted in widespread flooding. The Summer Storms1 lasted from late May through mid-August, with the most intense storms occurring over a month-long period from May 25 to June 25. The Summer Storms exacted a major human and economic toll on Iowa, resulting in 18 fatalities and 106 injuries, forcing the evacuation of approximately 38,000 Iowans, and impacting 21,000 housing units. Iowa’s public and private sectors suffered significant monetary damages. Eighty-six of the ninety-nine counties in the state were included in the Governor’s disaster declarations. Presidential disaster declarations made residents in 84 counties eligible for Public Assistance and 78 counties for Individual Assistance. The Rebuild Iowa Advisory Commission estimated $798.3 million in damages to publicly owned buildings and infrastructure, including damages of $53 million to public transportation and $342 million to public utilities.

Missouri River Floods After Action Report, December 20, 2011

In May 2011, very heavy rains combined with above average snowpack caused reservoirs throughout the Upper Missouri River basin to swell. The river carried more water in May and June than it does in an average year. The six Iowa counties bordering the river—Fremont, Harrison, Mills, Monona, Pottawattamie and Woodbury—suffered from major flooding which persisted throughout the spring and summer. On June 2, Governor Terry Branstad issued a Proclamation of Disaster Emergency for the six impacted counties. The Iowa Homeland Security and Emergency Management Division (HSEMD) activated the State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) on June 10 to coordinate State, Federal, private sector, and voluntary agency preparedness and response activities in the affected area. The severity and duration of the flooding presented operational challenges for the SEOC and its partner agencies, which were further complicated by severe weather. The flooding forced the SEOC to conduct simultaneous response and recovery operations for an usually long period of time. The Missouri River floods caused major economic losses in Western Iowa. As a result of these economic losses, President Barack Obama issued a Major Disaster Declaration (FEMA-1998-DR) which made six counties eligible for Federal Public Assistance. The disaster declaration was subsequently amended on October 18, making five counties eligible for Federal Individual Assistance.

La conscience collective et la morale / par Arthur Bauer...

Collection : Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine

Evidence for collective medication in ants

Social organisms are exposed to many pathogens, and have evolved various defence mechanisms to limit the cost of parasitism. Here we report the first evidence that ants use plant compounds as a collective mean of defence against microorganisms. The wood ants Formica paralugubris often incorporate large quantities of solidified conifer resin into their nests. By creating resin-free and resin-rich experimental nests, we demonstrate that this resin inhibits the growth of microorganisms in a context mimicking natural conditions. Such a collective medication probably confers major ecological advantages, and may be an unrecognized yet common feature of large, complex and successful societies.

Ripening and quality of 'Laetitia' plums following harvest and cold storage as affected by inhibition of ethylene action

The inhibition of ethylene action by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) extends shelf and storage life of many climacteric fruits. However, 1-MCP appears to have limited effects on stone fruit depending on specie and cultivar. The effects of 1-MCP on ripening and quality of 'Laetitia' plums were determined during ripening at 23ºC following harvest and cold storage. Japanese plums (Prunus salicina, cv. Laetitia) were harvested at mature pre-climacteric stage, cooled to 2ºC within 36 hours of harvest and then treated with 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.50 or 1.00 muL L-1 of 1-MCP at 1°C for 24 hours. Following treatment, fruits were either held at 23ºC for 16 days or stored at 1ºC for 50 days. Fruits were removed from cold storage at 10-day intervals and allowed to ripe at 23°C for five days. A delay of climacteric respiration and ethylene production by 1-MCP treatment during ripening following harvest and cold storage was associated to a slow rate of fruit softening. 1-MCP treatment also delayed the loss of titratable acidity and changes of flesh and skin color, whereas it had little or no effect on soluble solids content. 1-MCP effects were concentration- and storage duration-dependent and, generally, a saturation fruit response to 1-MCP occurred between 0.5 and 1.0 muL L-1. During ripening, 1-MCP treated fruits attained quality similar to that of controls. Results indicated that 1-MCP treatment may extend shelf life (23ºC) and storage life (1ºC) of 'Laetitia' plums by approximately six and 20 days, respectively.

Membrane interaction of polymyxin B and synthetic analogues studied in biomimetic systems: implications for antibacterial action

Membrane-active antimicrobial peptides, such as polymyxin B (PxB), are currently in the spotlight as potential candidates toovercome bacterial resistance. We have designed synthetic analogs ofPxB in order to determine the structural requirements for membraneaction. Since the mechanism of action of PxB involves interaction withboth the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane of Gramnegative bacteria, we have used an approach based on mimicking theouter layers of these membranes using monolayers, Langmuir-Blodgettfilms and unilamelar vesicles, and applying a battery of biophysicalmethods in order to dissect the different events of membraneinteraction. Collectively, results indicate that the PxB analogues act inthe bacterial membrane by the same mechanism than PxB, and that cationic amphipathicity determines peptide activity.

Affirmative Action through Extra Prizes

Some affirmative action policies establish that a set of disadvantaged competitors has access to an extra prize. Examples are gender quotas or a prize for national competitors in an international competition. We analyse the effects of creating an extra prize by reducing the prize in the main competition. Contestants differ in ability and agents with relatively low ability belong to a disadvantaged minority. All contestants compete for the main prize, but only disadvantaged agents can win the extra prize. We show that an extra prize is a powerful tool to ensure participation of disadvantaged agents. Moreover, for intermediate levels of the disadvantage of the minority, introducing an extra prize increases total equilibrium effort compared to a standard contest. Thus, even a contest designer not interested in affirmative action might establish an extra prize in order to enhance competition. Keywords: Asymmetric contest, equality of opportunity, affirmative action, discrimination, prize structure, exclusion principle. JEL: C72, D72, I38, J78

Action Plan: For implementing the recommendations of the Iowa Governor's Pre-White House Conference on Library and Information Services, April 30, May 1 and 2, 1991 and the White House Conference on Library and Information Services, July 9-13, 1991

This report includes the objectives, implementation responsibilities and target dates recommended and passed by the delegates to the Iowa Governor's Pre-White House Conference on Library and Information Services (April 30-May 2, 1991) or the White House Conference on Library and Information Services (July 9-13, 1991. Text of the relevant recommendations is included for each objective.

Iowa Civil Rights Commission Agency Performance Plan and Action Plan, FY 2015

Agency performancce plan and action plan for the Iowa Civil Rights Commission