Extent and mechanism of phase separation during the extrusion of calcium phosphate pastes

The aim of this study was to increase understanding of the mechanism and dominant drivers influencing phase separation during ram extrusion of calcium phosphate (CaP) paste for orthopaedic applications. The liquid content of extrudate was determined, and the flow of liquid and powder phases within the syringe barrel during extrusion were observed, subject to various extrusion parameters. Increasing the initial liquid-to-powder mass ratio, LPR, (0.4-0.45), plunger rate (5-20 mm/min), and tapering the barrel exit (45°-90°) significantly reduced the extent of phase separation. Phase separation values ranged from (6.22 ± 0.69 to 18.94 ± 0.69 %). However altering needle geometry had no significant effect on phase separation. From powder tracing and liquid content determination, static zones of powder and a non-uniform liquid distribution was observed within the barrel. Measurements of extrudate and paste LPR within the barrel indicated that extrudate LPR remained constant during extrusion, while LPR of paste within the barrel decreased steadily. These observations indicate the mechanism of phase separation was located within the syringe barrel. Therefore phase separation can be attributed to either; (1) the liquid being forced downstream by an increase in pore pressure as a result of powder consolidation due to the pressure exerted by the plunger or (2) the liquid being drawn from paste within the barrel, due to suction, driven by dilation of the solids matrix at the barrel exit. Differentiating between these two mechanisms is difficult; however results obtained suggest that suction is the dominant phase separation mechanism occurring during extrusion of CaP paste.

Step by step: reconstruction of terrestrial animal movement paths by dead-reckoning

BACKGROUND: Research on wild animal ecology is increasingly employing GPS telemetry in order to determine animal movement. However, GPS systems record position intermittently, providing no information on latent position or track tortuosity. High frequency GPS have high power requirements, which necessitates large batteries (often effectively precluding their use on small animals) or reduced deployment duration. Dead-reckoning is an alternative approach which has the potential to 'fill in the gaps' between less resolute forms of telemetry without incurring the power costs. However, although this method has been used in aquatic environments, no explicit demonstration of terrestrial dead-reckoning has been presented.

RESULTS: We perform a simple validation experiment to assess the rate of error accumulation in terrestrial dead-reckoning. In addition, examples of successful implementation of dead-reckoning are given using data from the domestic dog Canus lupus, horse Equus ferus, cow Bos taurus and wild badger Meles meles.

CONCLUSIONS: This study documents how terrestrial dead-reckoning can be undertaken, describing derivation of heading from tri-axial accelerometer and tri-axial magnetometer data, correction for hard and soft iron distortions on the magnetometer output, and presenting a novel correction procedure to marry dead-reckoned paths to ground-truthed positions. This study is the first explicit demonstration of terrestrial dead-reckoning, which provides a workable method of deriving the paths of animals on a step-by-step scale. The wider implications of this method for the understanding of animal movement ecology are discussed.

Endothelial Function in Hypertension: Victim or Culprit?

Far from simply lining the inner surface of blood vessels, the cellular monolayer that comprises the endothelium is a highly active organ that regulates vascular tone. In health, the endothelium maintains the balance between opposing dilator and constrictor influences, while in disease, it is the common ground on which cardiovascular risk factors act to initiate the atherosclerotic process. As such, it is the site at which cardiovascular disease begins and consequently acts as a barometer of an individual's likely future cardiovascular health. The vascular endothelium is a very active organ responsible for the regulation of vascular tone through the effects of locally synthesized mediators, predominantly nitric oxide (NO), endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), and superoxide. NO is abundantly evident in normally functioning vasculature where it acts as a vasodilator, inhibits inflammation, and has an antiaggregant effect on platelets. Its depletion is both a sign and cause of endothelial dysfunction resulting from reduced activity of eNOS and amplified production of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidase, which, in turn, results in raised levels of reactive oxygen species. This cascade is the basis for reduced vascular compliance through an imbalanced regulation of tone with a predominance of vasoconstrictive elements. Further, structural changes in the microvasculature are a critical early step in the loss of normal function. This microvascular dysfunction is known to be highly predictive of future macrovascular events and is consequently a very attractive target for intervention in the hypertensive population in order to prevent cardiovascular events.

Novos métodos de síntese de 4-quinolonas e benzo[b]acridonas

As 4-quinolonas e as acridonas são duas importantes famílias de compostos heterocíclicos azotados naturais que apresentam uma variedade de importantes aplicações biológicas. As 4-quinolonas têm sido objecto de extensos estudos devido às suas potenciais aplicações como fortes agentes citotóxicos, antimitóticos e anti-plaquetários e como protectores cardiovasculares, mas o seu uso é principalmente como antibióticos de largo espectro. As acridonas são conhecidas por apresentarem importante actividade antiviral, antiparasitária, contra a leishmania e a malária, e anticancerígena. A variedade de importantes aplicações biológicas das 4-quinolonas e das acridonas e a contínua procura pela comunidade científica de novas substâncias com actividades biológicas atractivas destaca estes compostos como alvos interessantes para a preparação de novos derivados e/ou para o desenvolvimento de novos métodos de síntese destas duas famílias de compostos. No primeiro capítulo desta dissertação descreve-se a síntese dos compostos de partida que tiveram de ser previamente preparados para o desenvolvimento das novas rotas de síntese apresentadas nos capítulos seguintes. A 4-cloro-3- formilquinolina foi obtida através da reacção de Vilsmeier-Haack da 2’-aminoacetofenona enquanto que a 3-formilquinolin-4(1H)-ona foi facilmente preparada por hidrólise ácida da anterior. Foi necessário proteger o grupo amina da quinolin-4(1H)-ona para evitar reacções secundárias e foram descritas as reacções de protecção com o grupo metilo, etoxicarbonilo e ptoluenossulfonilo. Os 2,2-dióxidos de 1,3-di-hidrobenzo[c]tiofeno, necessários para o estudo das reacções de Diels-Alder, não se encontram disponíveis comercialmente e a sua síntese é também descrita. No segundo capítulo reporta-se uma nova e eficiente rota de síntese de (Z)- e (E)-3-estirilquinolin-4(1H)-onas a partir da reacção de Wittig da 4-cloro-3- formilquinolina e de 3-formilquinolin-4(1H)-onas com benzilidenotrifenilfosforanos. As (Z)-3-estirilquinolin-4(1H)-onas foram obtidas com elevada diastereoselectividade a partir da reacção das 3-formilquinolin- 4(1H)-onas N-protegidas enquanto que as (E)-3-estirilquinolin-4(1H)-onas foram preparadas através da reacção de Wittig da 4-cloro-3-formilquinolina seguida da hidrólise ácida das respectivas (Z)- e (E)-4-cloro-3-estirilquinolinas obtidas. Ambas as rotas sintéticas são eficientes, independentemente dos substituintes dos benzilidenotrifenilfosforanos. No terceiro capítulo, descreve-se um novo método de síntese de novas benzo[b]acridonas a partir da reacção de Diels-Alder de 3-formilquinolin-4(1H)- onas N-protegidas, que actuam como dienófilos, com dienos altamente reactivos, os orto-benzoquinodimetanos, preparados in situ através da extrusão térmica do dióxido de enxofre dos respectivos 2,2-dióxidos de 1,3-dihidrobenzo[ c]tiofeno. A reacção de cicloadição das 3-formilquinolin-4(1H)-onas N-protegidas com orto-benzoquinodimetanos origina as benzo[b]-1,6,6a,12atetra- hidroacridin-12(7H)-onas esperadas, que são o resultado da referida cicloadição seguida de desformilação in situ, e mostrou ser eficiente apenas quando o grupo amina está derivatizado com um grupo sacador de electrões. A desidrogenação destas benzo[b]-1,6,6a,12a-tetra-hidroacridin-12(7H)-onas em dimetilsulfóxido utilizando uma quantidade catalítica de iodo foi também descrita e originou como produto principal as benzo[b]acridin-12(7H)-onas N-desprotegidas. Todos os compostos novos sintetizados foram caracterizados por diversas técnicas analíticas, especialmente por estudos espectroscópicos de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), incluindo espectros de 1H e 13C, bidimensionais de correlação espectroscópica homonuclear e heteronuclear e de efeito nuclear de Overhauser (NOESY). Foram também efectuados, sempre que possível, espectros de massa (EM) e análises elementares ou espectros de massa de alta resolução (EMAR) para todos os compostos novos sintetizados. O tautomerismo da 3-formil- e 3-estirilquinolin-4(1H)-onas e as isomerizações (E) (Z) e rotacional das 3-estirilquinolin-4(1H)-onas e das 4-cloro-3-estirilquinolinas foram estudados através de ressonância magnética nuclear experimental (RMN 1H e 13C) e teórica [B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p)].