Las negociaciones internacionales de cambio climático y los países en desarrollo ¿qué hacer?

Frente a la apremiante amenaza que el Cambio Climático representa para países en desarrollo y al reto que implica una participación efectiva y ejemplar en el espacio de negociación de la Convención Marco de Naciones Unidas de Cambio Climático, el presente documento aborda este problema con una visión a fortalecer las capacidades de crítica, de reflexión, de análisis, de conocimiento técnico y de negociación de delegados actuales y futuros que pueda tener no sólo el Ecuador, sino cualquier país en desarrollo. Se hace referencia a los procesos que dieron inicio a la Convención de Cambio Climático y a los problemas que ha presentado desde su inicio, a sus grupos de negociación e inclinaciones políticas divergentes, al avance de temas bajo la Convención y a los problemas que éstos han encontrado para finalizar presentando el mayor reto actual en el marco de estas negociaciones: el diseño de un acuerdo climático que incluya a todos los países (a diferencia del Protocolo de Kioto), con fuerza legal y que debe ser firmado en París, en noviembrediciembre de 2015 para entrar en vigor desde 2020. Las discusiones actuales bajo este espacio de negociaciones se concentran en los elementos que éste futuro acuerdo pueda incluir sin ignorar ni desreconocer el avance que ya se ha realizado en los temas tratados bajo la Convención. Sin embargo, la divergencia principal radica en la inexistencia de lineamientos y principios claros que guíen el régimen en el futuro, y algunas Partes no han desaprovechado la oportunidad de traer a discusión el funcionamiento y principios del régimen actual. Es momento para una participación fortalecida de países en desarrollo, basada en un análisis profundo y reflexivo de las alternativas existentes y sin olvidar la premura que presenta el cambio climático frente a efectos irreversibles y a falta de voluntad política abundante.

Decrecimiento: ¿un fenómeno europeo o una tendencia necesaria?

El término “Decrecimiento” designa un una corriente de pensamiento político, económico y social que impulsa y sostiene la disminución regular y controlada de la producción económica, con el fin de llegar al establecimiento de un equilibrio entre el ser humano y la naturaleza, -así como entre los propios seres humanos-, sobre la base de una consideración de fondo: no puede existir un crecimiento infinito en un mundo finito, en otras palabras, con una dotación limitada de recursos naturales. Así, lo que propugna el movimiento es un acrecimiento -literalmente, un nocrecer- es decir, un llamado a la simplicidad voluntaria y un rechazo al crecimiento per se, tal y como predica el liberalismo, matriz ideológica de la economía global. A pesar de las diferencias que existen entre los varios pensadores del movimiento y su distinto modo de enfocar los caminos hacia una verdadera “sociedad decreciente”, todos concuerdan en una serie de principios de fondo cuales la sobriedad voluntaria, el freno al consumismo y el rechazo al totalitarismo economicista, desarrollista y adepto al progreso; al contrario, lo que se propone es un regreso a la vida simple, a los afectos, a los valores familiares y comunitarios. Finalmente, el decrecimiento se plantea como una apuesta política que probablemente esté presente en los futuros debates electorales siendo que Su fuerte critica a los parámetros derrochadores y consumistas de nuestras sociedades contemporáneas se plantea como muy oportuna en el actual contexto de crisis energética y climática global.

La negociación como herramienta de comunicación en un mundo de relativismo y subjetividad

La negociación, antes que ser una herramienta de trabajo dirigida a la resolución de conflictos y a la consecución de acuerdos, se caracteriza por una componente fundamental, a veces desestimada o del todo ignorada: el hecho que obliga a un previo proceso de introspección y de autoanálisis, lo que finalmente facilita el proceso de comunicación con nuestro entorno.

El arte de negociar como una herramienta de creación de valor según la metodología de la Harvard Law School

El arte de la negociación es una estrategia fundamental en la toma de decisiones y un proceso mediante el cual las partes, en todas las áreas de la vida y en todas las disciplinas y profesiones, intentan resolver conflictos y llegar acuerdos, compatiblemente con sus necesidades e intereses. De una forma más sencilla, la negociación podría definirse como: “…cualquier comunicación entre dos o más personas con la intención de influenciar o persuadir” (R. Bordone, Harvard Law School, MA). Todos estos elementos destacan la importancia de desarrollar destrezas y competencias que fortalezcan este tipo de habilidad y la necesidad de conocer las reglas del juego de esta poderosa herramienta. Según la Escuela de Harvard, la forma más exitosa y provechosa de negociar es la recogida por el modelo integrativo-cooperativo, el que se base sobre premisas muy diferentes del tradicional modelo distributivo. Este último responde a nuestra forma de negociar más espontánea y lamentablemente desacertada, es decir, una forma de negociar que se reduce a un simple reparto de lo que haya sobre la mesa, sin visualizar, analizar posibles opciones negociadoras más allá de este simple reparto. Es un esquema que responde a una negociación “dura”, que se fundamenta en una concepción adversarial de las relaciones humanas (homo homini lupus, T. Hobbes), en donde hay un ganador y un perdedor, sin tintes intermedios. Al contrario, la idea con el modelo que propone la Escuela de Harvard, -el modelo integrativo-cooperativo-es uno por el que una negociación exitosa es aquella que “crea valor sobre la mesa” y que genera beneficios para todas las partes, no solo una de ellas. En otras palabras, el enfoque no es aquel por el que si uno pierde, el otro gana sino uno en el que la otra parte debe alcanzar un razonable nivel de satisfacción en sus requerimientos y demandas. Este modelo crea valor sobre la mesa inclusive más allá de los posibles beneficios que puedan conseguirse a partir de un determinado acuerdo; por ejemplo, ataja el conflicto y preserva las relaciones humanas, las que a menudo, en base al modelo tradicional (ganarperder) quedan perjudicadas. Finalmente, el modelo cooperativo es uno que abre la puerta a la empatía, la escucha activa, la transparencia y confianza; todos elementos que sin lugar a dudas facilitan las complejas relaciones interpersonales.

La acción colectiva frente a la compra de renuncias obligatorias (Actualidad)

El presente artículo se centra en el análisis de reacciones de los movimientos sociales frente a una violación masiva de derechos humanos cometida en contra de funcionarios públicos del Estado Ecuatoriano al amparo de una figura jurídica implementada mediante decreto ejecutivo denominada “compra de renuncia obligatoria”. La autora deja abierto el debate sobre las acciones o la falta de acción colectiva que se traduce en la poca efectividad de mecanismos para oponerse a medidas tan drásticas como la implementada por el gobierno ecuatoriano.

Multilayered hydrogel coatings covalently-linked to glass surfaces showing a potential to mimic mucosal tissues

Multilayered hydrogel coatings can be developed on the surface of glass slides via layer-by-layer deposition of hydrogen-bonded interpolymer complexes formed by poly(acrylic acid) and methylcellulose. Chemical modification of the glass surface with (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane with subsequent layer-by-layer deposition and cross-linking of interpolymer complexes by thermal treatment allows fabrication of ultrathin hydrogel coatings, not detachable from the substrate. The thickness of these coatings is directly related to the number of deposition cycles and cross-linking conditions. An unusual dependence of the hydrogel swelling properties on the sample thickness is observed and can be interpreted by gradual transitions between two- and three-dimensional networks. The hydrogels exhibit pH-responsive swelling behaviour, achieving higher swelling degrees at pH > 6.0. These coatings can be used as model substrates to study the adhesive properties of pharmaceutical tablets and can potentially mimic the total work of adhesion observed for the detachment of mucoadhesives from porcine buccal mucosa but fail to exhibit identical detachment profiles.

A basic guide to hydrogels

Hydrogels are defined as three-dimensionally cross-linked networks of hydrophilic polymers capable of imbibing large amounts of water or biological fluids.They can be prepared from any water-soluble polymer or monomer, encompassing a wide range of chemical compositions and bulk physical properties. In the swollen state hydrogels are soft, wet and elastic materials that resemble natural living tissue, which makes them candidates for developing various biomaterials and dosage forms. This article provides a brief introduction to hydrogels, methods of their synthesis and properties

Dynamic behavior of Arabidopsis eif4a-iii, putative core protein of exon junction complex: fast relocation to nucleolus and splicing speckles under hypoxia

Here, we identify the Arabidopsis thaliana ortholog of the mammalian DEAD box helicase, eIF4A-III, the putative anchor protein of exon junction complex (EJC) on mRNA. Arabidopsis eIF4A-III interacts with an ortholog of the core EJC component, ALY/Ref, and colocalizes with other EJC components, such as Mago, Y14, and RNPS1, suggesting a similar function in EJC assembly to animal eIF4A-III. A green fluorescent protein (GFP)-eIF4A-III fusion protein showed localization to several subnuclear domains: to the nucleoplasm during normal growth and to the nucleolus and splicing speckles in response to hypoxia. Treatment with the respiratory inhibitor sodium azide produced an identical response to the hypoxia stress. Treatment with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 led to accumulation of GFP-eIF4A-III mainly in the nucleolus, suggesting that transition of eIF4A-III between subnuclear domains and/or accumulation in nuclear speckles is controlled by proteolysis-labile factors. As revealed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analysis, the nucleoplasmic fraction was highly mobile, while the speckles were the least mobile fractions, and the nucleolar fraction had an intermediate mobility. Sequestration of eIF4A-III into nuclear pools with different mobility is likely to reflect the transcriptional and mRNA processing state of the cell.

Designing Temperature-Responsive Biocompatible Copolymers and Hydrogels Based on 2-Hydroxyethyl(meth)acrylates

Free-radical copolymerization of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate can be successively utilized for the synthesis of water-soluble polymers and hydrogels with excellent physicochemical properties, thus showing promise for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. In the work presented it has been demonstrated that water-soluble copolymers based on 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate exhibit lower critical solution temperature in aqueous solutions, whereas the corresponding high molecular weight homopolymers do not have this unique property. The temperature-induced transitions observed upon heating the aqueous solutions of these copolymers proceed via liquid−liquid phase separation. The hydrogels were also synthesized by copolymerizing 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate in the absence of a bifunctional cross-linker. The cross-linking of these copolymers during copolymerization is believed to be due to the presence of bifunctional admixtures or transesterification reactions. Transparency, swelling behavior, mechanical properties, and porosity of the hydrogels are dependent upon the monomer ratio in the copolymers. Hydrogel samples containing more 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate are less transparent, have lower swelling capacity, higher elastic moduli, and pores of smaller size. The assessment of the biocompatibility of the copolymers using the slug mucosal irritation test revealed that they are also less irritant than poly(acrylic acid).

Localization of eIF4A-III in the nucleolus and splicing speckles is an indicator of plant stress

The mechanisms of long-term adaptation to low oxygen environment are quite well studied, but little is known about the sensing of oxygen shortage, the signal transduction and the short-term effects of hypoxia in plant cells. We have found that an RNA helicase eIF4A-III, a putative component of the Exon Junction Complex, rapidly changes its pattern of localisation in the plant nucleus under hypoxic conditions. In normal cell growth conditions GFP- eIF4A-III was mainly nucleoplasmic, but in hypoxia stress conditions it moved to the nucleolus and splicing speckles. This transition occurred within 15-20 min in Arabidopsis culture cells and seedling root cells, but took more than 2 h in tobacco BY-2 culture cells. Inhibition of respiration, transcription or phosphorylation in cells and ethanol treatment had similar effects to hypoxia. The most likely consequence is that a certain mRNA population will remain bound to the eIF4A-III and other mRNA processing proteins, rather than being transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and thus its translation will be suspended.

AtTRB1, a telomeric DNA-binding protein from Arabidopsis, is concentrated in the nucleolus and shows highly dynamic association with chromatin

AtTRB1, 2 and 3 are members of the SMH (single Myb histone) protein family, which comprises double-stranded DNA-binding proteins that are specific to higher plants. They are structurally conserved, containing a Myb domain at the N-terminus, a central H1/H5-like domain and a C-terminally located coiled-coil domain. AtTRB1, 2 and 3 interact through their Myb domain specifically with telomeric double-stranded DNA in vitro, while the central H1/H5-like domain interacts non-specifically with DNA sequences and mediates protein–protein interactions. Here we show that AtTRB1, 2 and 3 preferentially localize to the nucleus and nucleolus during interphase. Both the central H1/H5-like domain and the Myb domain from AtTRB1 can direct a GFP fusion protein to the nucleus and nucleolus. AtTRB1–GFP localization is cell cycle-regulated, as the level of nuclear-associated GFP diminishes during mitotic entry and GFP progressively re-associates with chromatin during anaphase/telophase. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and fluorescence loss in photobleaching, we determined the dynamics of AtTRB1 interactions in vivo. The results reveal that AtTRB1 interaction with chromatin is regulated at two levels at least, one of which is coupled with cell-cycle progression, with the other involving rapid exchange.

Analysis of Phytochemical Composition and Chemoprotective Capacity of Rocket (Eruca sativa and Diplotaxis tenuifolia) Leafy Salad Following Cultivation in Different Environments

Consumption of green leafy vegetables is associated with reduced risk of several types of cancer and cardiovascular disease. These beneficial effects are attributed to a range of phytochemicals including flavonoids and glucosinolates, both of which are found in high levels in Brassicaceous crops. Rocket is the general name attributed to cultivars of Eruca sativa and Diplotaxis tenufolia, known as salad rocket and wild rocket, respectively. We have shown that different light levels during the cultivation period of these crops have a significant impact on the levels of flavonoids present in the crop at harvest, with over 15-fold increase achieved in quercetin, isorhamnetin, and cyanidin in high light conditions. Postharvest storage further affects the levels of both flavonoids and glucosinolates, with cyanidin increasing during shelf life and some glucosinolates, such as glucoiberverin, being reduced over the same storage period. In vitro assays using human colon cell lines demonstrate that glucosinolate-rich extracts of Eruca sativa cv. Sky, but not Diplotaxis tenufolia cv. Voyager, confer significant resistance to oxidative stress on the cells, which is indicative of the chemoprotective properties of the leaves from this species. Our findings indicate that both pre and postharvest environment and genotypic selection, when developing new lines of Brassicaceous vegetables, are important considerations with the goal of improving human nutrition and health.

Aberrant mRNA Transcripts and the Nonsense-Mediated Decay Proteins UPF2 and UPF3 Are Enriched in the Arabidopsis Nucleolus

The eukaryotic nucleolus is multifunctional and involved in the metabolism and assembly of many different RNAs and ribonucleoprotein particles as well as in cellular functions, such as cell division and transcriptional silencing in plants. We previously showed that Arabidopsis thaliana exon junction complex proteins associate with the nucleolus, suggesting a role for the nucleolus in mRNA production. Here, we report that the plant nucleolus contains mRNAs, including fully spliced, aberrantly spliced, and single exon gene transcripts. Aberrant mRNAs are much more abundant in nucleolar fractions, while fully spliced products are more abundant in nucleoplasmic fractions. The majority of the aberrant transcripts contain premature termination codons and have characteristics of nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) substrates. A direct link between NMD and the nucleolus is shown by increased levels of the same aberrant transcripts in both the nucleolus and in Up-frameshift (upf) mutants impaired in NMD. In addition, the NMD factors UPF3 and UPF2 localize to the nucleolus, suggesting that the Arabidopsis nucleolus is therefore involved in identifying aberrant mRNAs and NMD.