Utilização de métodos de comparação de sequências para a detecção de genes taxonomicamente restritos

Desde a década de 1990, os esforços internacionais para a obtenção de genomas completos levaram à determinação do genoma de inúmeros organismos. Isto, aliado ao grande avanço da computação, tem permitido o uso de abordagens inovadoras no estudo da estrutura, organização e evolução dos genomas e na predição e classificação funcional de genes. Entre os métodos mais comumente empregados nestas análises está a busca por similaridades entre sequências biológicas. Análises comparativas entre genomas completamente sequenciados indicam que cada grupo taxonômico estudado até o momento contém de 10 a 20% de genes sem homólogos reconhecíveis em outras espécies. Acredita-se que estes genes taxonomicamente restritos (TRGs) tenham um papel importante na adaptação a nichos ecológicos particulares, podendo estar envolvidos em importantes processos evolutivos. Entretanto, seu reconhecimento não é simples, sendo necessário distingui-los de ORFs não-funcionais espúrias e/ou artefatos derivados dos processos de anotação gênica. Além disso, genes espécie- ou gêneroespecíficos podem representar uma oportunidade para o desenvolvimento de métodos de identificação e/ou tipagem, tarefa relativamente complicada no caso dos procariotos, onde o método padrão-ouro na atualidade envolve a análise de um grupo de vários genes (MultiLocus Sequence Typing MLST). Neste trabalho utilizamos dados produzidos através de análises comparativas de genomas e de sequências para identificar e caracterizar genes espécie- e gênero-específicos, os quais possam auxiliar no desenvolvimento de novos métodos para identificação e/ou tipagem, além de poderem lançar luz em importantes processos evolutivos (tais como a perda e ou origem de genes em linhagens particulares, bem como a expansão de famílias de genes em linhagens específicas) nos organismos estudados.

Consumo cultural como diversidade expressiva: desigualdades nas construções simbólicas

No presente trabalho, busca-se refletir, em primeiro lugar, sobre as funções sociais da produção, da circulação e do consumo de bens culturais. Com esse objetivo, realiza-se uma análise crítica acerca das formas predominantes desde as quais foram interpretados esses processos, concedendo especial ênfase no papel que cumprem na construção simbólica de certa ordem social. Define-se a produção de bens culturais como uma objetivação de uma subjetividade determinada, e, em tal sentido, se considera como uma construção discursiva onde subjazem determinadas visões do mundo, contribuindo, desse modo, com uma produção simbólica específica. No entanto, sem desconhecer a formação de hegemonias e a sua pretensão de imposição, entende-se, no presente trabalho, que a construção de sentido não pode ser considerada como a imposição plena do objeto sobre o sujeito, senão como uma interação entre ambos. O significado é fruto de um processo interativo entre a história do processo de produção e a história incorporada nos esquemas de classificação que possuem os sujeitos de distintos espaços sociais. Em segundo lugar, considerando os resultados do survey sobre consumo cultural feita no ano 2009 no Uruguai, realiza-se uma discussão sobre as especificidades que este processo assume no citado país, bem como acerca do papel das políticas culturais e sua concepção regressiva da distribuição de fundos públicos, o que redunda no fortalecimento da exclusão simbólica dos setores com menores recursos.

Brca1 is expressed in human microglia and is dysregulated in human and animal model of ALS

Background: There is growing evidence that microglia are key players in the pathological process of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is suggested that microglia have a dual role in motoneurone degeneration through the release of both neuroprotective and neurotoxic factors. Results: To identify candidate genes that may be involved in ALS pathology we have analysed at early symptomatic age (P90), the molecular signature of microglia from the lumbar region of the spinal cord of hSOD1(G93A) mice, the most widely used animal model of ALS. We first identified unique hSOD1(G93A) microglia transcriptomic profile that, in addition to more classical processes such as chemotaxis and immune response, pointed toward the potential involvement of the tumour suppressor gene breast cancer susceptibility gene 1 (Brca1). Secondly, comparison with our previous data on hSOD1(G93A) motoneurone gene profile substantiated the putative contribution of Brca1 in ALS. Finally, we established that Brca1 protein is specifically expressed in human spinal microglia and is up-regulated in ALS patients. Conclusions: Overall, our data provide new insights into the pathogenic concept of a non-cell-autonomous disease and the involvement of microglia in ALS. Importantly, the identification of Brca1 as a novel microglial marker and as possible contributor in both human and animal model of ALS may represent a valid therapeutic target. Moreover, our data points toward novel research strategies such as investigating the role of oncogenic proteins in neurodegenerative diseases.

Pio del Rio Hortega and the discovery of the oligodendrocytes

Rio del Rio Hortega (1882-1945) discovered microglia and oligodendrocytes (OLGs), and after Ramon y Cajal, was the most prominent figure of the Spanish school of neurology. He began his scientific career with Nicolas Achucarro from whom he learned the use of metallic impregnation techniques suitable to study non-neuronal cells. Later on, he joined Cajal's laboratory. and Subsequently, he created his own group, where he continued to develop other innovative modifications of silver staining methods that revolutionized the study of glial cells a century ago. He was also interested in neuropathology and became a leading authority on Central Nervous System (CNS) tumors. In parallel to this clinical activity, del Rio Hortega rendered the first systematic description of a major polymorphism present in a subtype of macroglial cells that he named as oligodendroglia and later OLGs. He established their ectodermal origin and suggested that they built the myelin sheath of CNS axons, just as Schwann cells did in the periphery. Notably, he also suggested the trophic role of OLGs for neuronal functionality, an idea that has been substantiated in the last few years. Del Rio Hortega became internationally recognized and established an important neurohistological school with outstanding pupils from Spain and abroad, which nearly disappeared after his exile due to the Spanish civil war. Yet, the difficulty of metal impregnation methods and their variability in results, delayed for some decades the confirmation of his great insights into oligodendrocyte biology until the development of electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. This review aims at summarizing the pioneer and essential contributions of del Rio Hortega to the current knowledge of oligodendrocyte structure and function, and to provide a hint of the scientific personality of this extraordinary and insufficiently recognized man.

New Nuclear SNP Markers Unravel the Genetic Structure and Effective Population Size of Albacore Tuna (Thunnus alalunga)

In the present study we have investigated the population genetic structure of albacore (Thunnus alalunga, Bonnaterre 1788) and assessed the loss of genetic diversity, likely due to overfishing, of albacore population in the North Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, 1,331 individuals from 26 worldwide locations were analyzed by genotyping 75 novel nuclear SNPs. Our results indicated the existence of four genetically homogeneous populations delimited within the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Current definition of stocks allows the sustainable management of albacore since no stock includes more than one genetic entity. In addition, short-and long-term effective population sizes were estimated for the North Atlantic Ocean albacore population, and results showed no historical decline for this population. Therefore, the genetic diversity and, consequently, the adaptive potential of this population have not been significantly affected by overfishing.

From the Cajal alumni Achucarro and Rio-Hortega to the rediscovery of never-resting microglia

Under the guidance of Ramon y Cajal, a plethora of students flourished and began to apply his silver impregnation methods to study brain cells other than neurons: the neuroglia. In the first decades of the twentieth century, Nicolas Achucarro was one of the first researchers to visualize the brain cells with phagocytic capacity that we know today as microglia. Later, his pupil Pio del Rio-Hortega developed modifications of Achucarro's methods and was able to specifically observe the fine morphological intricacies of microglia. These findings contradicted Cajal's own views on cells that he thought belonged to the same class as oligodendroglia (the so called "third element" of the nervous system), leading to a long-standing discussion. It was only in 1924 that Rio-Hortega's observations prevailed worldwide, thus recognizing microglia as a unique cell type. This late landing in the Neuroscience arena still has repercussions in the twenty first century, as microglia remain one of the least understood cell populations of the healthy brain. For decades, microglia in normal, physiological conditions in the adult brain were considered to be merely "resting," and their contribution as "activated" cells to the neuroinflammatory response in pathological conditions mostly detrimental. It was not until microglia were imaged in real time in the intact brain using two-photon in vivo imaging that the extreme motility of their fine processes was revealed. These findings led to a conceptual revolution in the field: "resting" microglia are constantly surveying the brain parenchyma in normal physiological conditions. Today, following Cajal's school of thought, structural and functional investigations of microglial morphology, dynamics, and relationships with neurons and other glial cells are experiencing a renaissance and we stand at the brink of discovering new roles for these unique immune cells in the healthy brain, an essential step to understand their causal relationship to diseases.

Processos de criação em Artes Visuais: o tempo tecendo encontros.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo investigar processos de criação no campo do ensino das artes através de propostas desenvolvidas em oficinas de artes visuais. Os interlocutores desta pesquisa foram seis jovens com diferentes deficiências: Síndrome Down, deficiência física e deficiência intelectual, matriculados na rede pública de ensino. Os processos de criação aqui tratados revelaram que os variados repertórios utilizados por este grupo para criarestão fortemente atrelados à produção veiculada pelas mídias na contemporaneidade. Dentre as produções de maior recorrência verificadas no interior das narrativas dos jovens estão: a produção da TV, do cinema e das histórias em quadrinhos. As investigações sobre os processos de criação deste grupo se deram tanto a partir dos seus processos individuais quanto dos coletivos. O conceito de processos de criação compreendido neste trabalho está vinculado ao pensamento de Mikhail Bakhtin, Lev Vigotski e Rita Ribes Pereira e do artista Marcel Duchamp. As relações estabelecidas para compreender o campo das artes visuais na contemporaneidade estão no pensamento de Arthur Danto eNicolas Bourriaud. Este trabalho dialoga com o campo do ensino da arte através das reflexões realizadas por Ana Mae Barbosa, Jochen Dietrich, Ana Elisabete Lopes, Mirian Celeste Martins e Lucia Pimentel.

Climatological data in Mexico [abstract]

EXTRACT (SEE PDF FOR FULL ABSTRACT): This is a previous presentation of what has been observed in points spread in Mexico. The existing data amount is large enough that an atlas was given out in 1977. This atlas has information which goes back to the beginning of the country. The original data sets from which this atlas was issued exist in a variety of storage forms ranging from simple paper blocks up to books and magnetic tapes.

五味子属的花发育形态学和系统学-兼论五味子科的演化

五味子属隶属于木兰亚纲八角目五味子科，全属共15种，呈东亚一北美间断分布，东亚是其分布中心。五味子科因花部器官数目多而不定，螺旋状排列等特征，被确认为原始多心皮类的一员，与八角科、木兰科、Winteraceae等有亲缘关系。同时，因为它具有一些特化的性状，如具3沟或异极6沟型花粉、花单性，而常被视为木兰亚纲中进化水平较高的类群。然而，近年来分子系统学的研究结果显示，五味子科是被子植物最基部的分支之一。这使得该科成为解决原始被子植物起源与演化问题的重要类群之一，而倍受关注。中国是五味子属植物分布最集中的地区，有着得天独厚的资源优势。在论述了该属研究现状和存在问题的基础上，作者重点从花发育形态学和分子系统学，对该类群进行了较为深入的研究，发现了一些重要的新的性状，为该类群的系统发育分析提供了有力的证据。 1. 借助于扫描电镜，对全属成熟雄花的6种变异类型的代表种，进行了全面细致的花形态建成的观察和分析。首次发现该属雄花形态建成的式样有3类，并分别将之命名为柱托型、平托型和球托型，它们的主要特征如下：柱托型在花发育的全过程里，花托部分保持柱状，雄蕊始终螺旋状排列;平托型的花原端在分化出雄蕊原基后，向上的生长减弱而侧向的生长增强，最终形成扁平五边形的花托，雄蕊先螺旋状排列后轮状排列：球托型的雄蕊原基仍是螺旋状向顶发生，但与此同时，雄花花托部分球形膨大，并逐渐在雄蕊着生处产生浅凹和孔穴。显然，这3种式样在花形态发生的早前期相一致，而在雄蕊原基萌动后并开始分化时，它们之间发生分异，导致成熟雄花的形态显著不同。作者认为，雄花形态式样反映了五味子属系统发育的渊源，柱托型是原始类型，平托型和球托型是衍生类型，它们可能在系统发育的较早期就已分异，各自朝不同的方向演化。根据这一新的证据，将五味子属分成3亚属：大花五味子亚属、五味子亚属和团蕊五味子亚属。它们雄花的形态发生式样分别为柱托型、平托型和球托型。还发现在雄花的形态发生同为柱托型的类群中，大花五味子群和少蕊五味子群的雄蕊在成熟时，药室由初始时位于药隔两侧的位置逐渐外转至药隔的背面或侧背面，造成开裂时呈外向或外侧向纵裂：而华中五味子群的雄蕊成熟后，药室仍位于药隔的两侧面，呈侧向纵裂。 南五味子属是五味子属最近缘的类群，以南五味子为代表种，进行了雄花形态发生的研究，该种雄花的形态建成式样属于柱托型，但又不同于五味子属的柱托型，其主要的区别表现在南五味子的雄蕊在成熟时变成轮状排列，该特征使它似乎界于大花五味子群和五味子群之间，呈过渡类型。因而，对于传统分类学中，依据果实的形态将五味子科划分为五味子属和南五味子属，需要重新审视。 2. 根据对花形态发生的观察和分析，文章提出五味子属中雄花形态发生式样为柱托型的大花五味子亚属是最原始的类群，而具平托型和球托型式样的类群演化程度都相对较高。五味子属雄花的演化趋势主要表现在花托从柱状向扁平状和球状演化：雄蕊数目由多数变为少数并最终向定数演化：雄蕊群由螺旋状排列向轮状排列演化。有性生殖过程中的传粉习性可能是导致五味子属雄花形态产生变异的原因。在白垩纪，鞘翅目昆虫仍是最主要的传粉媒介，它们在起到传粉作用的同时，也对植物的花器官造成严重损害。五味子属植物的祖先类群为了适应这种传粉习性，采取了不同的策略。雄花花托柱状，雄蕊螺旋状排列的类群，以多数雄蕊保证传粉得以完成：而在雄蕊数目少的类群中，则补偿性地增大花器官的营养组织部分，达到保护花药的目的。 关于五味子属植物单性花的性质，常被认为是较进化的性状。本研究结果显示，雄花中未出现雌性部分的残存，雌花中也未出现雄性部分的痕迹。因此，在形态上，五味子属表现出完全单性的特征。作者认为，五味子属的单性花性质不同于由两性花退化所形成的单性花，它可能反映了被子植物祖先类群花的另一种演化路线。 另外，作者通过对五味子属雌花形态发生的研究，比较和分析了诸多原始被子植物类群心皮的形态及其发生过程，赞成Endress认为离生多心皮类中既有对折心皮，也有囊状心皮，它们在原始类群中并存的观点。五味子属植物雌花的形态较一致，心皮在原基腹面基部的活动不明显，成熟心皮具明显的腹缝，腹缝两侧形成柱头脊，在类型上属于对折型心皮，体现了该属的原始性。 3. 作者选取了核基因组的rrs区和叶绿体基因组的trnL-F区，对五昧子属的10个种(代表了全部雄花类型)和南五味子属的4个种(分属2个组)以及作为外类群的华中八角，首次进行了序列分析。结果表明，从代表不同基因组的两个片段得到的分支图非常一致，都显示出：a) 五味子属的类群分别聚在3个不同的支上，并且这3个支完全对应于花形态发生的3种式样：b) 南五味子属的成员与五味子群聚在一起并得到Bootstrap分析很高的支持率，说明它们可能是单系的。该结果支持基于花形态发生研究所得到的结论。作者认为过去的分类中，将五味子属和南五味子属分割成两个属可能是不妥当的，值得深入研究。 4. 通过花发育形态学和分子系统学的研究，结合其它方面的资料，作者认为传统分类依据果实形态划分成的五味子属和南五味子属，可能都不是严格的单系类群。南五味子属的类群与五味子属中雄花花托为扁平五边形的类群显示出有很强的相关性。将两个属共同处理，分为3个亚属，似较适宜。由于尚需对南五味子属扩大取样研究，目前暂不对它进行处理。本文仅对传统意义上的五味子属的系统处理如下： 五味子属Schisandra Michx． 亚属1大花五味子亚属 Subgen.1 Pleiostema (Smith)Law 组1大花五味子组 Sect.1 PleiostemaSmith 组2华中五味子组 Sec.2 Sinoschisandra(Law)Liu 组3少蕊五味子组 Secc.3 Maximowiczia(Rupr.)Nakai 亚属2五味子亚属 Subgen.2 Schismxtm 亚属3团蕊五味子亚属 Subgen.3 Sphaerostema(Bl.)Law 5. 五味子科(或包括南五味子属在内的广义五味子属)现代分布格局显示，中国华中、华东和西南至印度支那北部的地域是该类群的多样性中心，而在整个分布区的外围，则零星散布着一些演化水平较高的类群。因此，五味子科很可能是在东亚大陆起源、分化后，往四周扩散。通过白令陆桥或欧美大陆到达北美：受第四纪冰川影响，形成东亚一北美间断分布。在东喜马拉雅、印度尼西亚的分布也都是扩散的结果。

毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属的系统学研究

毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属为菊科菊苣族植物，属于中国-喜马拉雅分布类型。该两属植物性状变异较大，并与莴苣属等近缘属之间性状严重交叉，构成了菊苣族中极为混杂的类群“Lactuca-Prenanthes”复合群，是菊科植物系统学研究中的疑难点之一。本文通过对毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属及部分近缘属植物的形态性状、叶表皮特征、瘦果解剖特征和表面微形态特征以及细胞学等的研究及对该两属植物的生境和地理分布的分析，确认了毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属的独立地位，阐明它们与近缘属间的系统学关系，并对该两属进行了系统的分类学修订。 1. 形态性状分析 　　我们在检查大量国内外馆藏标本和野外居群观察的基础上，对毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属及部分近缘属植物的形态性状及其变异式样进行了详细地比较分析，重新评价了各性状的分类学价值，认为冠毛、瘦果特征和总苞片层数及排列方式等对于毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属与近缘属的划分具有重要的系统学意义;而小花的颜色、总苞片毛被的位置，小花的舌片与花冠管的长度比及瘦果的形态等特征对属下分类具有重要的意义。而传统上作为种间划分依据的叶片形状、毛被多少等特征在种内变化较大，不宜作为种的划分依据，至少不能作为主要的或唯一的依据。 2. 叶表皮特征 　　首次在光镜下观察了毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属14种植物的叶表皮，发现其共同的特征为：上、下表皮细胞的形状均为无规则型，垂周壁式样为波状;气孔器类型均为无规则型，在气孔的两极，角质侵入呈棒状或者“T” 型加厚或者不加厚;并认为上、下叶表皮细胞的波状程度、表皮细胞的大小、气孔指数、气孔密度，角质加厚情况等特征对种的划分具有一定的意义。 3. 瘦果解剖特征观察 　　通过对毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属及近缘属植物的瘦果解剖研究发现有两种类型：翅型和肋型。翅型瘦果的特征是在横切面上不仅有肋，而且在两侧具有明显突起的翅，中果皮由薄壁细胞和纤维细胞组成，且纤维细胞局限于翅和肋上，而不见于肋间，莴苣属，岩参属，翅果菊属，毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属具有这种类型的瘦果解剖结构;肋型瘦果的特征是在横切面上仅有肋而无翅，中果皮全部由纤维细胞组成，在肋和肋间连续，紫菊属和假福王草属具有这种果壁解剖结构。而中果皮的薄壁细胞和纤维细胞的数目和位置等特征在两种类型内的属间表现出很大的差异。瘦果的解剖特征对于属间划分具有分类学意义。 4. 瘦果表面微特征的观察 　　我们对毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属及近缘属共20种植物的瘦果表面进行了电镜扫描微形态特征的观察。结果表明：瘦果表面性状具有属级的特征，在表皮细胞形状，细胞外壁纹饰类型等方面存在较大的属间差异，可应用在属间界定及关系判别上。毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属植物由于具有短急尖端壁的椭圆形和钝端壁的长纺锤形的表皮细胞和疣状乳突的外壁纹饰等特征而区别于莴苣属等其他属。瘦果表面微特征在所观察的属内种间有着较高的一致性，但表皮细胞的大小，端壁形状及蜡质的发育程度等性状在毛鳞菊属内存在种间差异，为种间的划分提供了一定的依据。 5. 细胞学研究 　　我们研究了2种莴苣属，1种毛鳞菊属和1种翅果菊属植物的染色体数目，其中毛鳞菊属1种为首次报道，并对它们全部进行了核型分析。毛鳞菊属植物的染色体数目为2n=16 （x=8），为二倍体，染色体核型为“3B”型，不对称性较强。根据文献资料，细莴苣属的染色体数目也为2n=16 （x=8），为二倍体，染色体核型为“3A”型，不对称性也较强。毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属植物的染色体数目较莴苣属等近缘属（2n=18）减少了两条， 核型对称性下降。染色体核型资料可以说明毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属植物在Lactuca-Prenanthes复合群中处于较进化的位置。 6. 分支系统学研究 　　对30个广义形态学性状进行了分支系统学分析，得到53棵同等简约树。在简约树中，内类群形成两大支，一支为所有具有翅型瘦果的类群，另一支是具有肋型瘦果的类群，前者包括毛鳞菊属、细莴苣属、莴苣属和翅果菊属，它们的成员分别各自聚在一起，并获得很高的支持率;后者包括假福王草属和紫菊属等，它们的成员也分别聚在一起，并获得很高的支持率。分析结果支持石铸将它们分别独立成属的分类处理。 通过对毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属及近缘属植物的广义形态学性状的分支分析研究，认为毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属的关系最近，获得了66%的支持率，而二者与翅果菊属的关系较为接近。毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属的多数性状都是衍生的和进化的，显然它们在Lactuca-Prenanthes复合群中处于比较进化的地位。 7. 分类学修订 　　在应用上述性状分析结果及查阅国内外大量标本的基础上，重新界定了毛鳞菊属和细莴苣属的概念，包括新性状的补充，对该两属植物进行了系统的分类学修订。确定了毛鳞菊属目前包括13种1变种，归并了8种，作出一个改级新组合，确认一名称不属于该属，另有一种的分类学地位有待进一步研究;细莴苣属目前包括3种，归并了3种。“分类处理”部分还描述了每个种的性状特征、变异情况、相关的分类学处理及其与近缘种的关系，最后列出所研究的标本。

Food habits of Sowerby's beaked whales (Mesoplodon bidens) taken in the pelagic drift gillnet fishery of the western North Atlantic

We describe the food habits of the Sowerby’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens) from observations of 10 individuals taken as bycatch in the pelagic drift gillnet fishery for Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) in the western North Atlantic and 1 stranded individual from Kennebunk, Maine. The stomachs of 8 bycaught whales were intact and contained prey. The diet of these 8 whales was dominated by meso- and benthopelagic fishes that composed 98.5% of the prey items found in their stomachs and cephalopods that accounted for only 1.5% of the number of prey. Otoliths and jaws representing at least 31 fish taxa from 15 families were present in the stomach contents. Fishes, primarily from the families Moridae (37.9% of prey), Myctophidae (22.9%), Macrouridae (11.2%), and Phycidae (7.2%), were present in all 8 stomachs. Most prey were from 5 fish taxa: Shortbeard Codling (Laemonema barbatulum) accounted for 35.3% of otoliths, Cocco’s Lanternfish (Lobianchia gemellarii) contributed 12.9%, Marlin-spike (Nezumia bairdii) composed 10.8%, lanternfishes (Lampanyctus spp.) accounted for 8.4%; and Longfin Hake (Phycis chesteri) contributed 6.7%. The mean number of otoliths per stomach was 1196 (range: 327–3452). Most of the fish prey found in the stomachs was quite small, ranging in length from 4.0 to 27.7 cm. We conclude that the Sowerby’s beaked whales that we examined in this study fed on large numbers of relatively small meso- and benthopelagic fishes that are abundant along the slope and shelf break of the western North Atlantic.