Photoionization of Kr near 4s threshold: II. Intermediate-coupling theory

The Kr 4s-electron photoionization cross section as a function of the exciting-photon energy in the range between 30 eV and 90 eV was calculated using the configuration interaction (CI) technique in intermediate coupling. In the calculations the 4p spin-orbital interaction and corrections due to higher orders of perturbation theory (the so-called Coulomb interaction correlational decrease) were considered. Energies of Kr II states were calculated and agree with spectroscopic data within less than 10 meV. For some of the Kr II states new assignments were suggested on the basis of the largest component among the calculated CI wavefunctions.

Elastic nuclear scattering at intermediate and relativistic energies

The classical scattering cross section of two colliding nuclei at intermediate and relativistic energies is reevaluated. The influence of retardation and magnetic field effects is taken into account. Corrections due to electron screening as well as due to attractive nuclear forces are discussed. This paper represents an addendum to [l].

Protein Folding Simulations: Confinement, External Fields and Sequence Design

The present Thesis looks at the problem of protein folding using Monte Carlo and Langevin simulations, three topics in protein folding have been studied: 1) the effect of confining potential barriers, 2) the effect of a static external field and 3) the design of amino acid sequences which fold in a short time and which have a stable native state (global minimum). Regarding the first topic, we studied the confinement of a small protein of 16 amino acids known as 1NJ0 (PDB code) which has a beta-sheet structure as a native state. The confinement of proteins occurs frequently in the cell environment. Some molecules called Chaperones, present in the cytoplasm, capture the unfolded proteins in their interior and avoid the formation of aggregates and misfolded proteins. This mechanism of confinement mediated by Chaperones is not yet well understood. In the present work we considered two kinds of potential barriers which try to mimic the confinement induced by a Chaperon molecule. The first kind of potential was a purely repulsive barrier whose only effect is to create a cavity where the protein folds up correctly. The second kind of potential was a barrier which includes both attractive and repulsive effects. We performed Wang-Landau simulations to calculate the thermodynamical properties of 1NJ0. From the free energy landscape plot we found that 1NJ0 has two intermediate states in the bulk (without confinement) which are clearly separated from the native and the unfolded states. For the case of the purely repulsive barrier we found that the intermediate states get closer to each other in the free energy landscape plot and eventually they collapse into a single intermediate state. The unfolded state is more compact, compared to that in the bulk, as the size of the barrier decreases. For an attractive barrier modifications of the states (native, unfolded and intermediates) are observed depending on the degree of attraction between the protein and the walls of the barrier. The strength of the attraction is measured by the parameter $\epsilon$. A purely repulsive barrier is obtained for $\epsilon=0$ and a purely attractive barrier for $\epsilon=1$. The states are changed slightly for magnitudes of the attraction up to $\epsilon=0.4$. The disappearance of the intermediate states of 1NJ0 is already observed for $\epsilon =0.6$. A very high attractive barrier ($\epsilon \sim 1.0$) produces a completely denatured state. In the second topic of this Thesis we dealt with the interaction of a protein with an external electric field. We demonstrated by means of computer simulations, specifically by using the Wang-Landau algorithm, that the folded, unfolded, and intermediate states can be modified by means of a field. We have found that an external field can induce several modifications in the thermodynamics of these states: for relatively low magnitudes of the field ($<2.06 \times 10^8$ V/m) no major changes in the states are observed. However, for higher magnitudes than ($6.19 \times 10^8$ V/m) one observes the appearance of a new native state which exhibits a helix-like structure. In contrast, the original native state is a $\beta$-sheet structure. In the new native state all the dipoles in the backbone structure are aligned parallel to the field. The design of amino acid sequences constitutes the third topic of the present work. We have tested the Rate of Convergence criterion proposed by D. Gridnev and M. Garcia ({\it work unpublished}). We applied it to the study of off-lattice models. The Rate of Convergence criterion is used to decide if a certain sequence will fold up correctly within a relatively short time. Before the present work, the common way to decide if a certain sequence was a good/bad folder was by performing the whole dynamics until the sequence got its native state (if it existed), or by studying the curvature of the potential energy surface. There are some difficulties in the last two approaches. In the first approach, performing the complete dynamics for hundreds of sequences is a rather challenging task because of the CPU time needed. In the second approach, calculating the curvature of the potential energy surface is possible only for very smooth surfaces. The Rate of Convergence criterion seems to avoid the previous difficulties. With this criterion one does not need to perform the complete dynamics to find the good and bad sequences. Also, the criterion does not depend on the kind of force field used and therefore it can be used even for very rugged energy surfaces.

Characterization of DnmA, the Dnmt2 homolog in Dictyostelium discoideum

Eukaryotic DNA m5C methyltransferases (MTases) play a major role in many epigenetic regulatory processes like genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, silencing of transposons and gene expression. Members of the two DNA m5C MTase families, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3, are relatively well studied and many details of their biological functions, biochemical properties as well as interaction partners are known. In contrast, the biological functions of the highly conserved Dnmt2 family, which appear to have non-canonical dual substrate specificity, remain enigmatic despite the efforts of many researchers. The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium encodes Dnmt2-homolog, the DnmA, as the only DNA m5C MTase which allowed us to study Dnmt2 function in this organism without interference by the other enzymes. The dnmA gene can be easily disrupted but the knock-out clones did not show obvious phenotypes under normal lab conditions, suggesting that the function of DnmA is not vital for the organism. It appears that the dnmA gene has a low expression profile during vegetative growth and is only 5-fold upregulated during development. Fluorescence microscopy indicated that DnmA-GFP fusions were distributed between both the nucleus and cytoplasm with some enrichment in nuclei. Interestingly, the experiments showed specific dynamics of DnmA-GFP distribution during the cell cycle. The proteins colocalized with DNA in the interphase and were mainly removed from nuclei during mitosis. DnmA functions as an active DNA m5C MTase in vivo and is responsible for weak but detectable DNA methylation of several regions in the Dictyostelium genome. Nevertheless, gel retardation assays showed only slightly higher affinity of the enzyme to dsDNA compared to ssDNA and no specificity towards various sequence contexts, although weak but detectable specificity towards AT-rich sequences was observed. This could be due to intrinsic curvature of such sequences. Furthermore, DnmA did not show denaturant-resistant covalent complexes with dsDNA in vitro, although it could form covalent adducts with ssDNA. Low binding and methyltransfer activity in vitro suggest the necessity of additional factor in DnmA function. Nevertheless, no candidates could be identified in affinity purification experiments with different tagged DnmA fusions. In this respect, it should be noted that tagged DnmA fusion preparations from Dictyostelium showed somewhat higher activity in both covalent adduct formation and methylation assays than DnmA expressed in E.coli. Thus, the presence of co-purified factors cannot be excluded. The low efficiency of complex formation by the recombinant enzyme and the failure to define interacting proteins that could be required for DNA methylation in vivo, brought up the assumption that post-translational modifications could influence target recognition and enzymatic activity. Indeed, sites of phosphorylation, methylation and acetylation were identified within the target recognition domain (TRD) of DnmA by mass spectrometry. For phosphorylation, the combination of MS data and bioinformatic analysis revealed that some of the sites could well be targets for specific kinases in vivo. Preliminary 3D modeling of DnmA protein based on homology with hDNMT2 allowed us to show that several identified phosphorylation sites located on the surface of the molecule, where they would be available for kinases. The presence of modifications almost solely within the TRD domain of DnmA could potentially modulate the mode of its interaction with the target nucleic acids. DnmA was able to form denaturant-resistant covalent intermediates with several Dictyostelium tRNAs, using as a target C38 in the anticodon loop. The formation of complexes not always correlated with the data from methylation assays, and seemed to be dependent on both sequence and structure of the tRNA substrate. The pattern, previously suggested by the Helm group for optimal methyltransferase activity of hDNMT2, appeared to contribute significantly in the formation of covalent adducts but was not the only feature of the substrate required for DnmA and hDNMT2 functions. Both enzymes required Mg2+ to form covalent complexes, which indicated that the specific structure of the target tRNA was indispensable. The dynamics of covalent adduct accumulation was different for DnmA and different tRNAs. Interestingly, the profiles of covalent adduct accumulation for different tRNAs were somewhat similar for DnmA and hDNMT2 enzymes. According to the proposed catalytic mechanism for DNA m5C MTases, the observed denaturant-resistant complexes corresponded to covalent enamine intermediates. The apparent discrepancies in the data from covalent complex formation and methylation assays may be interpreted by the possibility of alternative pathways of the catalytic mechanism, leading not to methylation but to exchange or demethylation reactions. The reversibility of enamine intermediate formation should also be considered. Curiously, native gel retardation assays showed no or little difference in binding affinities of DnmA to different RNA substrates and thus the absence of specificity in the initial enzyme binding. The meaning of the tRNA methylation as well as identification of novel RNA substrates in vivo should be the aim of further experiments.

Molekularbiologische Charakterisierung der Argonauten Proteine AgnA und AgnB innerhalb der RNA vermittelten Genregulation in D. discoideum

Argonauten Proteine übernehmen vielfältige Funktionen in RNA vermittelten Signalwegen zur Genregulation und sind in eukaryotischen Organismen hoch konserviert. Obwohl das Repertoire an kleinen regulatorischen RNAs in D. discoideum schon früh untersucht wurde und dabei sowohl siRNAs als auch miRNAs identifiziert werden konnten, war die Funktion der fünf kodierten Argonauten Proteine zu Beginn meiner Arbeit noch völlig unbekannt. Im Fokus meiner Untersuchung standen die zwei Homologe AgnA und AgnB. Die molekularbiologische Charakterisierung von AgnA hat gezeigt, dass das Protein eine essentielle Funktion bei der posttranskriptionellen Regulation des Retrotransposons DIRS-1 hat. AgnA wird für die Generierung von über 90 % der DIRS-1 siRNAs benötigt, wobei unklar ist, ob die Slicer-Aktivität des Proteins relevant ist oder ob AgnA andere Proteine zur Generierung der kleinen RNAs rekrutiert. Mit Hilfe der Deep Sequencing Analyse kleiner RNAs im AgnA KO konnte die Abreicherung der DIRS-1 siRNAs bestätigt werden. Die Anreicherung von DIRS-1 sense und antisense Transkripten weist deutlich auf eine Deregulation des Retrotransposons bei Abwesenheit von AgnA hin. Der Verlust der AgnA abhängigen Regulationsebene ist nicht nur auf RNA- sondern auch auf DNA-Ebene nachweisbar, da im AgnA Knockout einzelsträngige extrachromosomale DIRS-1 Intermediate nachweisbar sind. Die Analyse dieser Strukturen mit Hilfe von Rasterkraftmikroskopie zeigt, dass die extrachromosomale DNA mit Proteinen assoziiert ist. Das Erscheinungsbild legt die Vermutung nahe, dass es sich um Virus ähnliche Partikel handeln könnte. Die Transposition der DIRS-1 Elemente konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden. Sie schlägt vermutlich fehl, da der zur Integration notwendige DNA-Doppelstrang nicht gebildet wird. Auch wenn der genaue Mechanismus der AgnA abhängigen DIRS-1 Regulation nicht vollständig aufgeklärt werden konnte, weisen die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass AgnA nicht nur an der Biogenese der kleinen DIRS-1 siRNAs beteiligt ist, sondern auch weiter downstream, vermutlich innerhalb von Effektorkomplexen, als Regulator aktiv ist. AgnB ist nicht an der negativen Regulation des DIRS-1 Retrotransposons beteiligt. Im Gegenteil haben Experimente gezeigt, dass das Protein die Transkription des Elementes und die Bildung von DNA-Intermediaten eher positiv beeinflusst. Im Fall des Retrotransposons Skipper ist unklar, ob die wenigen siRNAs, die identifiziert worden sind, tatsächlich für die Regulation dieses Elementes genutzt werden. Der Knockout von AgnA hat eine Anreicherung der Skipper siRNAs zur Folge, wobei diese sehr variabel ist. Es konnten Skipper Transkripte nachgewiesen werden (Hinas et al., 2007), die wahrscheinlich die Vorläufermoleküle der siRNAs darstellen. Die Menge dieser Transkripte unterscheidet sich allerdings im Wildtyp und den untersuchten Knockout-Stämmen nicht. Bei der Untersuchung der miRNAs zeigte sich eine signifikante Anreicherung dieser regulatorischen RNAs im AgnA Knockout. Die Akkumulation kann durch die Expression von rekombinantem AgnA wieder auf Wildtyp Niveau gebracht werden. Die genaue Funktion von AgnA im miRNA Signalweg konnte aber nicht näher spezifiziert werden. Im Fall der beiden miRNAs konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nachgewiesen werden, dass sie keine 2‘-O Methylierung besitzen und fast ausschließlich im Cytoplasma der Zelle vorliegen. Letzteres weist darauf hin, dass die untersuchten miRNAs ihre Zielgene vermutlich posttranskriptionell regulieren. Die Akkumulation von miRNAs im AgnA KO konnte ebenfalls durch Deep Sequencing Analysen verifiziert werden. Weiterhin wurden tRNA Fragmente gefunden, die im AgnA KO wesentlich stärker vertreten sind. Northern Blot Analysen haben gezeigt, dass ein zusätzliches Fragment der tRNA Asp akkumuliert, wenn AgnA nicht exprimiert wird. Möglicherweise ist AgnA am Umsatz der tRNA beteiligt. Die biologische Funktion der tRNA Fragmente in D. discoideum ist jedoch bisher ungeklärt. Bei der Suche nach putativen Interaktionspartnern konnte im Fall von AgnA das Protein DDB_G0268914 mittels Massenspektrometrie als putativer Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden. Dieses Protein zeigt Homologien zu MOV10 aus H. sapiens, das ebenfalls mit Argonauten Proteinen interagiert (Hock et al., 2007) und die Replikation von Retroviren unterdrückt (Burdick et al., 2010). Die Interaktion zwischen AgnA und dem MOV10 Homolog konnte bisher nicht mit anderen Ansätzen bestätigt werden. Darüber hinaus bleibt zu klären, ob der putative Interaktionsparter ebenfalls an der Regulation des Retrotransposons DIRS-1 beteiligt ist.

Characterization of Lipid Droplets and Functional Analysis of Lipid Droplet-Associated Proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum

Lipid droplets (LDs) are the universal storage form of fat as a reservoir of metabolic energy in animals, plants, bacteria and single celled eukaryotes. Dictyostelium LD formation was investigated in response to the addition of different nutrients to the growth medium. LDs were induced by adding exogenous cholesterol, palmitic acid (PA) as well as growth in bacterial suspension, while glucose addition fails to form LDs. Among these nutrients, PA addition is most effective to stimulate LD formation, and depletion of PA from the medium caused LD degradation. The neutral lipids incorporated into the LD-core are composed of triacylglycerol (TAG), steryl esters, and an unknown neutral lipid (UKL) species when the cells were loaded simultaneously with cholesterol and PA. In order to avoid the contamination with other cellular organelles, the LD-purification method was modified. The isolated LD fraction was analysed by mass spectrometry and 100 proteins were identified. Nineteen of these appear to be directly involved in lipid metabolism or function in regulating LD morphology. Together with a previous study, a total of 13 proteins from the LD-proteome were confirmed to localize to LDs after the induction with PA. Among the identified LD-proteins, the localization of Ldp (lipid droplet membrane protein), GPAT3 (glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 3) and AGPAT3 (1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate-acyltransferase 3) were further verified by GFP-tagging at the N-termini or C-termini of the respective proteins. Fluorescence microscopy demonstrated that PA-treatment stimulated the translocation of the three proteins from the ER to LDs. In order to clarify DGAT (diacylglycerol acyltransferase) function in Dictyostelium, the localization of DGAT1, that is not present in LD-proteome, was also investigated. GFP-tagged DGAT1 localized to the ER both, in the presence and absence of PA, which is different from the previously observed localization of GFP-tagged DGAT2, which almost exclusively binds to LDs. The investigation of the cellular neutral lipid level helps to elucidate the mechanism responsible for LD-formation in Dictyostelium cells. Ldp and two short-chain dehydrogenases, ADH (alcohol dehydrogenase) and Ali (ADH-like protein), are not involved in neutral lipid biosynthesis. GPAT, AGPAT and DGAT are three transferases responsible for the three acylation steps of de novo TAG synthesis. Knock-out (KO) of AGPAT3 and DGAT2 did not affect storage-fat formation significantly, whereas cells lacking GPAT3 or DGAT1 decreased TAG and LD accumulation dramatically. Furthermore, DGAT1 is responsible for the accumulation of the unknown lipid UKL. Overexpression of DGAT2 can rescue the reduced TAG content of the DGAT1-KO mutant, but fails to restore UKL content in these cells, indicating that of DGAT1 and DGAT2 have overlapping functions in TAG synthesis, but the role in UKL formation is unique to DGAT1. Both GPAT3 and DGAT1 affect phagocytic activity. Mutation of GPAT3 increases it but a DGAT1-KO decreases phagocytosis. The double knockout of DGAT1 and 2 also impairs the ability to grow on a bacterial lawn, which again can be rescued by overexpression of DGAT2. These and other results are incorporated into a new model, which proposes that up-regulation of phagocytosis serves to replenish precursor molecules of membrane lipid synthesis, whereas phagocytosis is down-regulated when excess fatty acids are used for storage-fat formation.  

Facilitating folding of outer membrane proteins, roles of the periplasmic chaperone Skp and the outer membrane lipoprotein BamD

This thesis describes several important advancements in the understanding of the assembly of outer membrane proteins of Gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli. A first study was performed to identify binding regions in the trimeric chaperone Skp for outer membrane proteins. Skp is known to facilitate the passage of unfolded outer membrane proteins (OMPs) through the periplasm to the outer membrane (OM). A gene construct named “synthetic chaperone protein (scp)” gene was used to express a fusion protein (Scp) into the cytoplasm of E. coli. The scp gene was used as a template to design mutants of Scp suitable for structural and functional studies using site-directed spectroscopy. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) was used to identify distances in Skp-OmpA complexes that separate regions in Scp and in outer membrane protein A (OmpA) from E. coli. For this study, single cysteine (Cys) mutants and single Cys - single tryptophan (Trp) double mutants of Scp were prepared. For FRET experiments, the cysteines were labeled with the tryptophan fluorescence energy acceptor IAEDANS. Single Trp mutants of OmpA were used as fluorescence energy donors. In the second part of this thesis, the function of BamD and the structure of BamD-Scp complexes were examined. BamD is an essential component of the β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) complex of the OM of Gram-negative bacteria. Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to probe the interactions of BamD with lipid membranes and to investigate the interactions of BamD with possible partner proteins from the periplasm and from the OM. A range of single cysteine (Cys) and single tryptophan (Trp) mutants of BamD were prepared. A very important conclusion from the extensive FRET study is that the essential lipoprotein BamD interacts and binds to the periplasmic chaperone Skp. BamD contains tetratrico peptide repeat (TPR) motifs that are suggested to serve as docking sites for periplasmic chaperones such as Skp.

Charakterisierung des Ubiquitin-ähnlichen Proteins Urm1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Das ursprünglich in S. cerevisiae identifizierte Urm1 stellt aufgrund seiner dualen Funktionsweise ein besonderes UBL dar. In einem Prozess, der als Urmylierung bezeichnet wird, kann es ähnlich dem Ubiquitin kovalent mit anderen Proteinen verknüpft werden. Zusätzlich fungiert es aber auch als Schwefelträger, der an der Thiolierung des wobble-Uridins bestimmter cytoplasmatischer tRNAs beteiligt ist. Während neuere Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die Urm1-abhängige tRNA-Thiolierung zu einer effizienten Translation in Eukaryoten beiträgt, ist die Bedeutung der Urmylierung immer noch unklar. Um die Funktion der Urm1-vermittelten Proteinmodifikation weiter aufzuklären, wurde die Urmylierung des Peroxiredoxins Ahp1 im Rahmen dieser Arbeit näher untersucht. Es konnte demonstriert werden, dass Ahp1 nicht nur als Monomer, sondern auch als Dimer urmyliert vorliegt. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die Urmylierung mit dem peroxidatischen Zyklus von Ahp1 verknüpft ist. Diese Annahme konnte durch die Untersuchung der Modifikation verschiedener ahp1-Punktmutanten bestätigt werden. Hierbei ließ sich ebenfalls zeigen, dass das Peroxiredoxin wahrscheinlich auch an alternativen Lysinresten urmyliert werden kann. Trotzdem bleibt unklar, inwiefern die Funktionalität von Ahp1 durch die Urm1-Konjugation beeinträchtigt wird. So konnte ein Einfluss der Urmylierung auf die Ahp1-vermittelte Entgiftung des Alkylhydroperoxids t-BOOH nicht festgestellt werden. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung einer möglichen mechanistischen Verknüpfung beider Urm1-Funktionen. Es ließ sich zeigen, dass nicht nur Schwefelmangel, sondern auch ein Verlust der Schwefeltransferase Tum1 zu einer drastischen Reduktion der Urm1-Konjugation führt. Demnach wird die Urmylierung wahrscheinlich über denselben Schwefeltransferweg vermittelt, der ebenfalls zur tRNA-Thiolierung beiträgt. Trotzdem ist der Schwefeltransfer, der zur Urm1-Aktivierung führt, womöglich komplexer als bisher angenommen. Wurden die vermuteten katalytischen Cysteine des Urm1-Aktivatorproteins Uba4 mutiert oder dessen C-terminale RHD entfernt, waren eine gehemmte Urmylierung und tRNA-Thiolierung weiterhin nachweisbar. Somit scheint ein Schwefeltransfer auf Urm1 auch ohne direkte Beteiligung von Uba4 möglich zu sein. In dieser Arbeit ließ sich außerdem zeigen, dass Urm1 in Hefe durch sein humanes Homolog funktional ersetzt werden kann. Dies ist ein Hinweis dafür, dass der Urm1-Weg in allen Eukaryoten gleich funktioniert und konserviert ist. Darüber hinaus scheint für die Urmylierung auch eine Konservierung der Substratspezifität gegeben zu sein. Der Nachweis einer Uba4-Urmylierung in Hefe könnte durchaus darauf hindeuten.

Low genetic diversity and functional constraint in loci encoding Plasmodium vivax P12 and P38 proteins in the Colombian population

Background Plasmodium vivax is one of the five species causing malaria in human beings, affecting around 391 million people annually. The development of an anti-malarial vaccine has been proposed as an alternative for controlling this disease. However, its development has been hampered by allele-specific responses produced by the high genetic diversity shown by some parasite antigens. Evaluating these antigens’ genetic diversity is thus essential when designing a completely effective vaccine. Methods The gene sequences of Plasmodium vivax p12 (pv12) and p38 (pv38), obtained from field isolates in Colombia, were used for evaluating haplotype polymorphism and distribution by population genetics analysis. The evolutionary forces generating the variation pattern so observed were also determined. Results Both pv12 and pv38 were shown to have low genetic diversity. The neutral model for pv12 could not be discarded, whilst polymorphism in pv38 was maintained by balanced selection restricted to the gene’s 5′ region. Both encoded proteins seemed to have functional/structural constraints due to the presence of s48/45 domains, which were seen to be highly conserved.

Identification of plasmodium vivax proteins with potential role in invasion using sequence redundancy reduction and profile hidden markov models

Background: This study describes a bioinformatics approach designed to identify Plasmodium vivax proteins potentially involved in reticulocyte invasion. Specifically, different protein training sets were built and tuned based on different biological parameters, such as experimental evidence of secretion and/or involvement in invasion-related processes. A profile-based sequence method supported by hidden Markov models (HMMs) was then used to build classifiers to search for biologically-related proteins. The transcriptional profile of the P. vivax intra-erythrocyte developmental cycle was then screened using these classifiers. Results: A bioinformatics methodology for identifying potentially secreted P. vivax proteins was designed using sequence redundancy reduction and probabilistic profiles. This methodology led to identifying a set of 45 proteins that are potentially secreted during the P. vivax intra-erythrocyte development cycle and could be involved in cell invasion. Thirteen of the 45 proteins have already been described as vaccine candidates; there is experimental evidence of protein expression for 7 of the 32 remaining ones, while no previous studies of expression, function or immunology have been carried out for the additional 25. Conclusions: The results support the idea that probabilistic techniques like profile HMMs improve similarity searches. Also, different adjustments such as sequence redundancy reduction using Pisces or Cd-Hit allowed data clustering based on rational reproducible measurements. This kind of approach for selecting proteins with specific functions is highly important for supporting large-scale analyses that could aid in the identification of genes encoding potential new target antigens for vaccine development and drug design. The present study has led to targeting 32 proteins for further testing regarding their ability to induce protective immune responses against P. vivax malaria.

Beginning to write : writing activities for elementary and intermediate learners.

Diferencia entre hablar y escribir. Analiza lo que es la escritura, cómo debe ser enseñada y reconoce el papel que ésta desempeña en el aprendizaje de idiomas. Concluye con una sección de asesoramiento sobre cómo utilizar el centenar de actividades que se agrupan en capítulos para ayudar a los alumnos de primaria y secundaria a empezar a escribir con confianza y a practicar la ortografía y la puntuación. Tiene índice y bibliografía.

Discussions A-Z intermediate : a resource book of speaking activities.

Recurso con actividades destinadas a fomentar el debate entre estudiantes de nivel intermedio. El material consta de veintiséis temas, una para cada letra del alfabeto. La superposición de temas entre las unidades, significa que se puede pasar de una unidad a otra dando a los estudiantes un sentido de continuidad temática. Tiene índice e índice de enlaces.

Recycling intermediate English.

Ofrece a los estudiantes de nivel intermedio-bajo a intermedio los recursos para mejorar su inglés general y preparar el certificado Cambridge Preliminary Test (PET). Abarca cuatro secciones: gramática; vocabulario; situaciones para el uso del idioma en la vida cotidiana; y escritura, que incluye modelos de escritos, ayuda con la ortografía, consejos sobre técnicas de redacción y expresiones útiles.

Listening activities : photocopiable resource book. 2 : Intermediate upper-intermediate.

Recurso complementario para los jóvenes que aprenden el idioma inglés en el nivel intermedio. Contiene hojas de ejercicios para fotocopiar que son independientes y que pueden utilizarse en el orden deseado y aunque no tienen una progresión sistemática en el nivel del lenguaje, las primeras hojas son las más fáciles. El índice de contenidos da una visión general rápida de las funciones, temas y área del vocabulario, gramática y actividad que se practica.

English unlimited. B1, pre-intermediate : teacher's pack with DVD-ROM.

Curso de idiomas que se adapta a las necesidades específicas de los hablantes de español. Estas necesidades surgen a menudo debido a la interferencia con la lengua materna y se refieren a errores de gramática, vocabulario y pronunciación en el aprendizaje y el uso del inglés. Centrado en los objetivos de la vida real, prepara a los alumnos a usar el inglés con confianza para la comunicación fuera del aula. Este pack del profesor con DVD-ROM cuenta con ideas y actividades además de un amplio programa de pruebas y evaluación.