Functional implication of the vitamin A signaling pathway in the brain.

Vitamin A is necessary for normal embryonic development, but its role in the adult brain is poorly understood. Vitamin A derivatives, retinoids, are involved in a complex signaling pathway that regulates gene expression and, in the central nervous system, controls neuronal differentiation and neural tube patterning. Although a major functional implication of retinoic signaling has been repeatedly suggested in synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, sleep, schizophrenia, depression, Parkinson disease, and Alzheimer disease, the targets and the underlying mechanisms in the adult brain remain elusive.

Le contrat de franchise et le redressement et la liquidation judiciaire

Introduction générale : 1 L'essor du contrat de franchise se situe dans un contexte de mutation économique ainsi que de développement en France des nouvelles techniques de la distribution au cours des années 1960. Le commerce indépendant, jusque-là prépondérant, a décliné au profit de la distribution intégrée qui tendait à canaliser les circuits de distribution afin d'agir notamment sur les prix. On assiste alors à l'émergence de la grande distribution (hypermarchés, supermarchés), aux côtés de nouvelles techniques d'intégration commerciale qu'on appelle commerce associé, dans lequel le distributeur est indépendant sur le plan juridique et dans sa gestion, et n'est pas contraint à une exclusivité de son approvisionnement. En parallèle, s'impose en France et un peu partout en Europe, la franchise dont l'esprit est proche du commerce associé, mais qui s'appuie sur le prestige et la réputation des marques connues du public, pour assurer la distribution des produits de la franchise dans des points de vente ayant une identité reconnaissable. La distribution par la franchise conservait aussi l'esprit du commerce de proximité, privilégiant l'idée de boutique plutôt que celle de grands magasins. Avec l'évolution de la franchise, on assiste aujourd'hui à une cohabitation entre grandes surfaces et petites boutiques, qui se côtoient sans antagonisme dans des grands ensembles commerciaux. La franchise est considérée par certains auteurs comme une figure fondamentale du commerce contemporaine. 2 Le succès de la franchise s'explique par les nombreuses qualités et avantages que beaucoup s'accordent à lui reconnaître. Harmonisant les techniques les plus modernes de vente, elle permet néanmoins une gestion à dimension humaine et surtout indépendante au franchisé. Elle encourage à la création d'une entreprise (petite ou moyenne) par des particuliers désireux d'exercer une activité indépendante, tout en leur assurant une certaine sécurité dans leur investissement du fait de la notoriété de la marque mais aussi de l'assistance et du conseil d'un franchiseur compétent dans son domaine. La franchise permet au franchisé sous l'enseigne d'une marque de renom, de proposer des produits répondant aux normes de qualité et de proposer la même garantie aux consommateurs, dans tous les points de vente de la marque franchisée. Quant au créateur de la franchise, le franchiseur, il peut assurer une diffusion nationale et internationale de ses produits sans consentir d'investissements financiers. 3 La franchise est le contrat par lequel le franchiseur concède le droit d'exploiter la franchise au franchisé ; elle est aussi la méthode commerciale par laquelle se réalise cette exploitation. Elle en désigne à la fois le cadre et le contenu. Le contrat de franchise permet ainsi de prévoir le cadre contractuel des partenaires pour l'exploitation de la méthode commerciale mise au point et expérimentée par le franchiseur. Ce contrat est né de la pratique, et évolue dans un cadre juridique souple et hétérogène composé de règles venant à la fois du droit commun, du droit de la distribution et du droit de la concurrence interne et communautaire. Cette originalité lui a permis d'évoluer et de trouver les adaptations nécessaires pour suivre les besoins des activités à exercer. Il a ainsi commencé par se développer dans la vente de produits puis la prestation de services pour convenir ensuite à des activités libérales, telles que le conseil et le management. A l'intérieur de ce cadre non contraignant, le contrat de franchise impose en revanche un ensemble complexe d'obligations, lesquelles impliquent pour les partenaires une grande implication personnelle et commerciale. La jurisprudence a d'ailleurs largement contribué à préciser le contenu de nombreuses notions liées à ce contrat. 4 Une des fortes spécificités du contrat de franchise est d'une part, son caractère d'intuitus personae qui rend essentiel le choix de la personne du cocontractant, et d'autre part, l'idée de collaboration étroite entre les partenaires qui leur permet à la fois de détenir une grande force dans la réussite de la réitération de la franchise, mais qui peut aussi être source de fragilités. Il y a d'ailleurs un équilibre à trouver entre des réalités paradoxales : l'intégration du franchisé dans un réseau protégé par l'imposition de normes ainsi que le contrôle exercé par le franchiseur et le respect de l'indépendance juridique de ce franchisé. 5 Malgré ces promesses indéniables de réussite du franchisé grâce à la réitération des méthodes éprouvées par le franchiseur, de nombreux écueils guettent la franchise, et ont été largement traités par la doctrine et la jurisprudence. On peut citer notamment la difficulté de trouver un équilibre entre la supériorité économique du franchiseur et l'indépendance juridique du franchisé, la nécessité d'informer correctement et suffisamment le franchisé sur les perspectives de la franchise grâce à l'obligation d'information précontractuelle. Ces difficultés peuvent déboucher sur une «faillite » du franchisé. Placés devant cette situation, commence pour les partenaires une période de turbulences, au cours de laquelle les principes fondateurs du contrat, intuitus personae et collaboration sont remis en question. 6 Les difficultés d'application des mesures de la loi sur le redressement et la liquidation judiciaires, au partenaire en difficulté et au contrat de franchise n'ont pas encore reçu de réponse satisfaisante dans la pratique. En effet, comment peuvent être préservées la spécificité de la relation contractuelle basée sur l'intuitus personae et la forte collaboration en pareille situation ? Quel sera le traitement d'un contrat de franchise dans la procédure collective ? Dès lors que la «faillite » concerne un contrat de franchise, le cadre habituel et respectueux des spécificités de ce contrat fait place à un ensemble de règles d'exception qui vont s'appliquer uniformément à tous les contrats de l'entreprise en difficulté, en vue de la redresser. Précisément, le contrat de franchise est un révélateur des difficultés d'application uniforme et indifférenciée des règles de la «faillite » à des situations présentant des particularités. 7 Le franchisé est celui qui dans l'exécution normale du contrat, doit constamment chercher à équilibrer les rapports contractuels à la fois pour préserver son autonomie juridique, et garder une collaboration avec le franchiseur de manière à s'inspirer de ses conseils et des recettes de sa réussite ; il doit également s'assurer dans le cadre d'une bonne collaboration que le franchiseur exécute ses obligations quant à la transmission de l'information ainsi que la fourniture d'une assistance suffisante, mais sans dépassement. Cet équilibre comme on le verra n'est pas facile à trouver. Dans la «faillite », le franchisé n'aura pas beaucoup le choix des moyens. Son contrat sera soumis aux décisions des mandataires de la procédure qui pourront prendre certaines mesures ne tenant pas compte de la spécificité des liens contractuels entre le franchisé et le franchiseur. 8 La position de faiblesse du franchisé dans la relation de franchise, conduit à envisager principalement les conséquences de la «faillite » sur sa situation, plutôt que d'envisager d'un côté la «faillite » du franchisé et de l'autre côté, la «faillite » du franchiseur. Ce choix de porter l'attention sur la situation du franchisé s'explique par les grandes particularités qui ressortent en pareil cas. La présente étude se propose donc dans une première partie d'étudier précisément le contrat de franchise dans son cadre général ainsi que dans ses particularités, en faisant ressortir à la fois ses fortes particularités et les risques de «faillite »qu'il présente (chapitre unique). Dans une deuxième partie, il est question du sort du contrat de franchise en cas de «faillite » de l'une des parties, en particulier le franchisé, des effets de l'intuitus personae, qui est remis en question lors de la cession judiciaire du contrat (chapitre I) et des effets de l'étroite collaboration entre les parties, qui se posent lorsque le franchiseur a dépassé ses prérogatives dans le contrôle de la gestion, et en général de tout préjudice ayant consisté à aggraver la situation financière du franchisé. Se posent alors les possibilités de mise en jeu de la responsabilité du franchiseur (chapitre II). Il reste à préciser que des aspects de la «faillite » du franchiseur peuvent également être abordés lorsqu'ils revêtent un intérêt pour cette étude.

Age-associated modulations of cerebral oscillatory patterns related to attention control.

Visual attention depends on bottom-up sensory activation and top-down attentional guidance. Although aging is known to affect sensory processing, its impact on the top-down control of attention remains a matter of debate. We investigated age-related modulations of brain oscillatory activity during visual attention using a variant of the attention network test (ANT) in 20 young and 28 elderly adults. We examined the EEG oscillatory responses to warning and target signals, and explored the correlates of temporal and spatial orienting as well as conflict resolution at target presentation. Time-frequency analysis was performed between 4 and 30Hz, and the relationship between behavioral and brain oscillatory responses was analyzed. Whereas temporal cueing and conflict had similar reaction time effects in both age groups, spatial cueing was more beneficial to older than younger subjects. In the absence of cue, posterior alpha activation was drastically reduced in older adults, pointing to an age-related decline in anticipatory attention. Following both cues and targets, older adults displayed pronounced motor-related activation in the low beta frequency range at the expense of attention-related posterior alpha activation prominent in younger adults. These findings support the recruitment of alternative motor-related circuits in the elderly, in line with the dedifferentiation hypothesis. Furthermore, older adults showed reduced midparietal alpha inhibition induced by temporal orienting as well as decreased posterior alpha activation associated with both spatial orienting and conflict resolution. Altogether, the results are consistent with an overall reduction of task-related alpha activity in the elderly, and provide functional evidence that younger and older adults engage distinct brain circuits at different oscillatory frequencies during attentional functions.

Perineuronal nets protect fast-spiking interneurons against oxidative stress.

A hallmark of schizophrenia pathophysiology is the dysfunction of cortical inhibitory GABA neurons expressing parvalbumin, which are essential for coordinating neuronal synchrony during various sensory and cognitive tasks. The high metabolic requirements of these fast-spiking cells may render them susceptible to redox dysregulation and oxidative stress. Using mice carrying a genetic redox imbalance, we demonstrate that extracellular perineuronal nets, which constitute a specialized polyanionic matrix enwrapping most of these interneurons as they mature, play a critical role in the protection against oxidative stress. These nets limit the effect of genetically impaired antioxidant systems and/or excessive reactive oxygen species produced by severe environmental insults. We observe an inverse relationship between the robustness of the perineuronal nets around parvalbumin cells and the degree of intracellular oxidative stress they display. Enzymatic degradation of the perineuronal nets renders mature parvalbumin cells and fast rhythmic neuronal synchrony more susceptible to oxidative stress. In parallel, parvalbumin cells enwrapped with mature perineuronal nets are better protected than immature parvalbumin cells surrounded by less-condensed perineuronal nets. Although the perineuronal nets act as a protective shield, they are also themselves sensitive to excess oxidative stress. The protection might therefore reflect a balance between the oxidative burden on perineuronal net degradation and the capacity of the system to maintain the nets. Abnormal perineuronal nets, as observed in the postmortem patient brain, may thus underlie the vulnerability and functional impairment of pivotal inhibitory circuits in schizophrenia.

Glial cells and chronic pain.

Over the past few years, the control of pain exerted by glial cells has emerged as a promising target against pathological pain. Indeed, changes in glial phenotypes have been reported throughout the entire nociceptive pathway, from peripheral nerves to higher integrative brain regions, and pharmacological inhibition of such glial reactions reduces the manifestation of pain in animal models. This complex interplay between glia and neurons relies on various mechanisms depending both on glial cell types considered (astrocytes, microglia, satellite cells, or Schwann cells), the anatomical location of the regulatory process (peripheral nerve, spinal cord, or brain), and the nature of the chronic pain paradigm. Intracellularly, recent advances have pointed to the activation of specific cascades, such as mitogen-associated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the underlying processes behind glial activation. In addition, given the large number of functions accomplished by glial cells, various mechanisms might sensitize nociceptive neurons including a release of pronociceptive cytokines and neurotrophins or changes in neurotransmitter-scavenging capacity. The authors review the conceptual advances made in the recent years about the implication of central and peripheral glia in animal models of chronic pain and discuss the possibility to translate it into human therapies in the future.

Bridging the Gap: establishing the necessary infrastructure and knowledge for teaching and research in neuroscience in Africa.

Advances in neuroscience research over the last few decades have increased our understanding of how individual neurons acquire their specific properties and assemble into complex circuits, and how these circuits are affected in disease. One of the important motives driving neuroscience research is the development of new scientific techniques and interdisciplinary cooperation. Compared to developed countries, many countries on the African continent are confronted with poor facilities, lack of funding or career development programs for neuroscientists, all of which deter young scientists from taking up neuroscience as a career choice. This article highlights some steps that are being taken to promote neuroscience education and research in Africa.

Tunable reporter signal production in feedback-uncoupled arsenic bioreporters.

Escherichia coli-based bioreporters for arsenic detection are typically based on the natural feedback loop that controls ars operon transcription. Feedback loops are known to show a wide range linear response to the detriment of the overall amplification of the incoming signal. While being a favourable feature in controlling arsenic detoxification for the cell, a feedback loop is not necessarily the most optimal for obtaining highest sensitivity and response in a designed cellular reporter for arsenic detection. Here we systematically explore the effects of uncoupling the topology of arsenic sensing circuitry on the developed reporter signal as a function of arsenite concentration input. A model was developed to describe relative ArsR and GFP levels in feedback and uncoupled circuitry, which was used to explore new ArsR-based synthetic circuits. The expression of arsR was then placed under the control of a series of constitutive promoters, which differed in promoter strength, and which could be further modulated by TetR repression. Expression of the reporter gene was maintained under the ArsR-controlled Pars promoter. ArsR expression in the systems was measured by using ArsR-mCherry fusion proteins. We find that stronger constitutive ArsR production decreases arsenite-dependent EGFP output from Pars and vice versa. This leads to a tunable series of arsenite-dependent EGFP outputs in a variety of systematically characterized circuitries. The higher expression levels and sensitivities of the response curves in the uncoupled circuits may be useful for improving field-test assays using arsenic bioreporters.

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In the last years, the classical view of glial cells (in particular of astrocytes) as a simple supportive cell for neurons has been replaced by a new vision in which glial cells are active elements of the brain. Such a new vision is based on the existence of a bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons at synaptic level. Indeed, perisynaptic processes of astrocytes express active G-protein-coupled receptors that are able (1) to sense neurotransmitters released from the synapse during synaptic activity, (2) to increase cytosolic levels of calcium, and (3) to stimulate the release of gliotransmitters that in turn can interact with the synaptic elements. The mechanism(s) by which astrocytes can release gliotransmitter has been extensively studied during the last years. Many evidences have suggested that a fraction of astrocytes in situ release neuroactive substances both with calcium-dependent and calcium-independent mechanism(s); whether these mechanisms coexist and under what physiological or pathological conditions they occur, it remains unclear. However, the calcium-dependent exocytotic vesicular release has received considerable attention due to its potential to occur under physiological conditions via a finely regulated way. By releasing gliotransmitters in millisecond time scale with a specific vesicular apparatus, astrocytes can integrate and process synaptic information and control or modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity.

Avoiding transcription factor competition at promoter level increases the chances of obtaining oscillations

Background: The ultimate goal of synthetic biology is the conception and construction of genetic circuits that are reliable with respect to their designed function (e.g. oscillators, switches). This task remains still to be attained due to the inherent synergy of the biological building blocks and to an insufficient feedback between experiments and mathematical models. Nevertheless, the progress in these directions has been substantial. Results: It has been emphasized in the literature that the architecture of a genetic oscillator must include positive (activating) and negative (inhibiting) genetic interactions in order to yield robust oscillations. Our results point out that the oscillatory capacity is not only affected by the interaction polarity but by how it is implemented at promoter level. For a chosen oscillator architecture, we show by means of numerical simulations that the existence or lack of competition between activator and inhibitor at promoter level affects the probability of producing oscillations and also leaves characteristic fingerprints on the associated period/amplitude features. Conclusions: In comparison with non-competitive binding at promoters, competition drastically reduces the region of the parameters space characterized by oscillatory solutions. Moreover, while competition leads to pulse-like oscillations with long-tail distribution in period and amplitude for various parameters or noisy conditions, the non-competitive scenario shows a characteristic frequency and confined amplitude values. Our study also situates the competition mechanism in the context of existing genetic oscillators, with emphasis on the Atkinson oscillator.

Hypothalamus transcriptome profile suggests an anorexia-cachexia syndrome in the anx/anx mouse model

The anx/anx mouse displays poor appetite and lean appearance and is considered a good model for the study of anorexia nervosa. To identify new genes involved in feeding behavior and body weight regulation we performed an expression profiling in the hypothalamus of the anx/anx mice. Using commercial microarrays we detected 156 differentially expressed genes and validated 92 of those using TaqMan low-density arrays. The expression of a set of 87 candidate genes selected based on literature evidences was also quantified by TaqMan low-density arrays. Our results showed enrichment in deregulated genes involved in cell death, cell morphology and cancer as well as an alteration of several signaling circuits involved in energy balance including neuropeptide Y and melanocortin signaling. The expression profile along with the phenotype led us to conclude that anx/anx mice resemble the anorexia-cachexia syndrome typically observed in cancer, infection with human immunodeficiency virus or chronic diseases, rather than starvation, and that anx/anx mice could be considered a good model for the treatment and investigation of this condition.

Cannabinoid addiction: behavioral models and neural correlates

The use of cannabis sativa preparations as recreational drugs can be traced back to the earliest civilizations. However, animal models of cannabinoid addiction allowing the exploration of neural correlates of cannabinoid abuse have been developed only recently. We review these models and the role of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor, the main target of natural cannabinoids, and its interaction with opioid and dopamine transmission in reward circuits. Extensive reviews on the molecular basis of cannabinoid action are available elsewhere (Piomelli et al., 2000;Schlicker and Kathmann, 2001).

Impairment of mossy fiber long-term potentiation and associative learning in pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide type I receptor-deficient Mice

The pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) type I receptor (PAC1) is a G-protein-coupled receptor binding the strongly conserved neuropeptide PACAP with 1000-fold higher affinity than the related peptide vasoactive intestinal peptide. PAC1-mediated signaling has been implicated in neuronal differentiation and synaptic plasticity. To gain further insight into the biological significance of PAC1-mediated signaling in vivo, we generated two different mutant mouse strains, harboring either a complete or a forebrain-specific inactivation of PAC1. Mutants from both strains show a deficit in contextual fear conditioning, a hippocampus-dependent associative learning paradigm. In sharp contrast, amygdala-dependent cued fear conditioning remains intact. Interestingly, no deficits in other hippocampus-dependent tasks modeling declarative learning such as the Morris water maze or the social transmission of food preference are observed. At the cellular level, the deficit in hippocampus-dependent associative learning is accompanied by an impairment of mossy fiber long-term potentiation (LTP). Because the hippocampal expression of PAC1 is restricted to mossy fiber terminals, we conclude that presynaptic PAC1-mediated signaling at the mossy fiber synapse is involved in both LTP and hippocampus-dependent associative learning.

Allele variants in functional MicroRNA target sites of the neurotrophin-3 receptor gene (NTRK3) as susceptibility factors for anxiety disorders

Genetic and functional data indicate that variation in the expression of the neurotrophin-3 receptor gene (NTRK3) may have an impact on neuronal plasticity, suggesting a role for NTRK3 in the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders. MicroRNA (miRNA) posttranscriptional gene regulators act by base-pairing to specific sequence sites, usually at the 3'UTR of the target mRNA. Variants at these sites might result in gene expression changes contributing to disease susceptibility. We investigated genetic variation in two different isoforms of NTRK3 as candidate susceptibility factors for anxiety by resequencing their 3'UTRs in patients with panic disorder (PD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and in controls. We have found the C allele of rs28521337, located in a functional target site for miR-485-3p in the truncated isoform of NTRK3, to be significantly associated with the hoarding phenotype of OCD. We have also identified two new rare variants in the 3'UTR of NTRK3, ss102661458 and ss102661460, each present only in one chromosome of a patient with PD. The ss102661458 variant is located in a functional target site for miR-765, and the ss102661460 in functional target sites for two miRNAs, miR-509 and miR-128, the latter being a brain-enriched miRNA involved in neuronal differentiation and synaptic processing. Interestingly, these two variants significantly alter the miRNA-mediated regulation of NTRK3, resulting in recovery of gene expression. These data implicate miRNAs as key posttranscriptional regulators of NTRK3 and provide a framework for allele-specific miRNA regulation of NTRK3 in anxiety disorders.

Biochemical, morphological and content characterization of synaptobrevin 2-expressing vesicles in astrocytes

Neuron-astrocyte reciprocal communication at synapses has emerged as a novel signalling pathway in brain function. Astrocytes sense the level of synaptic activity and, in turn, influence its efficacy through the regulated release of ''glio- transmitters'' such as glutamate, ATP or D-serine. A calcium- dependent exocytosis is proposed to drive the release of gliotransmitters but its existence is still debated. To shed light onto the mechanisms controlling the storage and the release of gliotransmitters and namely D-serine, we have developed a new method for the immunoisolation of synaptobrevin 2-positive vesicles from rat cortical astrocytes in culture. The purified organelles are clear round shape vesicles of excellent purity as judged by electron microscopy. Immunoblotting analysis revealed that isolated vesicles contain most of the major proteins already described for neuron-derived vesicles. In addition, we have analyzed the content for various amino acids of these vesicles by means of chiral capillary electro- phoresis coupled to laser-induced fluorescence detection and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Post- embedding immunogold labelling of the rat neocortex and hippocampus further revealed the expression of D-serine and glutamate in astrocyte processes contacting excitatory sy- napses. Our results provide significant support for the existence of secretory glial vesicles storing chemical substances like D- serine and glutamate and thus point to the co-release of amino acids by exocytosis in astrocytes.

Functional architecture of olfactory ionotropic glutamate receptors.

Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) are ligand-gated ion channels that mediate chemical communication between neurons at synapses. A variant iGluR subfamily, the Ionotropic Receptors (IRs), was recently proposed to detect environmental volatile chemicals in olfactory cilia. Here, we elucidate how these peripheral chemosensors have evolved mechanistically from their iGluR ancestors. Using a Drosophila model, we demonstrate that IRs act in combinations of up to three subunits, comprising individual odor-specific receptors and one or two broadly expressed coreceptors. Heteromeric IR complex formation is necessary and sufficient for trafficking to cilia and mediating odor-evoked electrophysiological responses in vivo and in vitro. IRs display heterogeneous ion conduction specificities related to their variable pore sequences, and divergent ligand-binding domains function in odor recognition and cilia localization. Our results provide insights into the conserved and distinct architecture of these olfactory and synaptic ion channels and offer perspectives into the use of IRs as genetically encoded chemical sensors. VIDEO ABSTRACT: