Of milquetoasts and daredevils : personalities in female eiders

Traditionally biologists have often considered individual differences in behaviour or physiology as a nuisance when investigating a population of individuals. These differences have mostly been dismissed as measurement errors or as non-adaptive variation around an adaptive population mean. Recent research, however, challenges this view. While long acknowledged in human personality studies, the importance of individual variation has recently entered into ecological and evolutionary studies in the form of animal personality. The concept of animal personality focuses on consistent differences within and between individuals in behavioural and physiological traits across time and contexts and its ecological and evolutionary consequences. Nevertheless, a satisfactory explanation for the existence of personality is still lacking. Although there is a growing number of explanatory theoretical models, there is still a lack of empirical studies on wild populations showing how traditional life-history tradeoffs can explain the maintenance of variation in personality traits. In this thesis, I first investigate the validity of variation in allostatic load or baseline corticosterone (CORT) concentrations as a measure for differences in individual quality. The association between CORT and quality has recently been summarised under the “CORT-fitness hypothesis”, which states that a general negative relationship between baseline CORT and fitness exists. I then continue to apply the concept of animal personality to depict how the life-history trade-off between survival and fecundity is mediated in incubating female eiders (Somateria mollissima), thereby maintaining variation in behaviour and physiology. To this end, I investigated breeding female eiders from a wild population that breeds in the archipelago around Tvärminne Zoological Station, SW Finland. The field data used was collected from 2008 to 2012. The overall aim of the thesis was to show how differences in personality and stress responsiveness are linked to a life-history context. In the four chapters I examine how the life-history trade-off between survival and fecundity could be resolved depending on consistent individual differences in escape behaviour, stress physiology, individual quality and nest-site selection. First, I corroborated the validity of the “CORT-fitness hypothesis”, by showing that reproductive success is generally negatively correlated with serum and faecal baseline CORT levels. The association between individual quality and baseline CORT is, however, context dependent. Poor body condition was associated with elevated serum baseline CORT only in older breeders, while a larger reproductive investment (clutch mass) was associated with elevated serum baseline CORT among females breeding late in the season. Interestingly, good body condition was associated with elevated faecal baseline CORT levels in late breeders. High faecal baseline CORT levels were positively related to high baseline body temperature, and breeders in poor condition showed an elevated baseline body temperature, but only on open islands. The relationship between stress physiology and individual quality is modulated by breeding experience and breeding phenology. Consequently, the context dependency highlights that this relationship has to be interpreted cautiously. Additionally, I verified if stress responsiveness is related to risk-taking behaviour. Females who took fewer risks (longer flight initiation distance) showed a stronger stress response (measured as an increase in CORT concentration after capture and handling of the bird). However, this association was modulated by breeding experience and body condition, with young breeders and those in poor body condition showing the strongest relationship between risktaking and stress responsiveness. Shy females (longer flight initiation distance) also incubated their clutch for a shorter time. Additionally, I demonstrated that stress responsiveness and predation risk interact with maternal investment and reproductive success. Under high risk of predation, females that incubated a larger clutch showed a stronger stress response. Surprisingly, these females also exhibited higher reproductive success than females with a weaker stress response. Again, these context dependent results suggest that the relationship between stress responsiveness and risk-taking behaviour should not be studied in isolation from individual quality and that stress responsiveness may show adaptive plasticity when individuals are exposed to different predation regimes. Finally, female risk-taking behaviour and stress coping styles were also related to nest-site choice. Less stress responsive females more frequently occupied nests with greater coverage that were farther away from the shoreline. Females nesting in nests with medium cover and farther from the shoreline had higher reproductive success. These results suggest that different personality types are distributed non-randomly in space. In this thesis I was able to demonstrate that personalities and stress coping strategies are persistent individual characteristics, which express measurable effects on fitness. This suggests that those traits are exposed to natural selection and thereby can evolve. Furthermore, individual variation in personality and stress coping strategy is linked to the alternative ways in which animals resolve essential life-history trade-offs.

Infant Colic Crying and Gastrointestinal Tract – Causes, Consequences and Cure

Despite over 50 years of investigation, the precise cause of infant colic crying remains unresolved and the long-term consequences unrevealed, and an effective treatment is lacking. Indeed, a more profound understanding of the complex nature of infants’ excessive crying is needed. The purpose of this series of studies was to investigate the association between gut microbiota composition and infant crying, to evaluate the impact of colic crying on children’s later health and to study the possibilities of treating and preventing excessive crying with pro- and prebiotics. The material comprised three on-going, prospective randomized controlled trials of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (ATCC 53103, LGG) or a mixture of prebiotics administered in early infancy. The study populations consisted of term infants (n=89), preterm infants (n=94) and term colic infants (n=30). Early crying was found to be inversely associated with the number of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. Furthermore, at the age of 13 years functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID) were manifested more frequently among children with previous colic crying than in those without. In preterm infants pro- and prebiotic supplementation during the first months of life reduced the frequency of excessive crying when compared to placebo. In parallel, probiotic LGG in tandem with a cow’s milk elimination diet and behavioral counseling reduced the daily crying amount among term colic infants when compared to placebo. In conclusion, the composition of the gut microbiota is associated with infant crying and colic, and probiotic LGG might provide a safe and effective treatment or preventive option to alleviate excessive crying in early infancy in term and preterm infants. Furthermore, early colic crying might be associated with the later development of FGID.

Negative refractive index materials and propagation

Negative refractive index materials and propagation of electromagnetic waves in them started to draw attention of scientists not so long ago. This review highlights historically important and recent papers on practical and theoretical aspects related to these issues. Namely, basic properties and peculiarities of such materials related to both their design and wave propagation in them, experimental verification of predictions theoretically made for them, possible practical applications and prospects in this area are considered.

Nutrient cycling disturbance in Atlantic Forest sites affected by air pollution coming from the industrial complex of Cubatão, Southeast Brazil

Several aspects of nutrient cycling were studied at two sites of Atlantic Forest, in São Paulo State, Southeast Brazil (23o46’ S; 46o18’ W), which exhibited different degrees of forest structure decline caused by the air pollution emitted by the industrial complex of Cubatão, being referred here as the most and least affected sites (MAS and LAS, respectively). These investigations were developed during 1984 - 1986, a period in which the most severe negative effects of air pollution could be observed. Concentrations and amounts of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S in four ecosystem compartments (leaves, litter layer, soil and roots) and in rainfall, throughfall and litterfall are briefly presented. At each site, the content of mineral elements generally decreased from leaves to litterfall and litter layer on the forest floor. Soil surface layer (0 - 5 cm) in both sites was the richest in mineral elements. Soil fertility was greater at LAS. In general, nutrient amounts remaining in the compartments and cycling through the ecosystem were greater at LAS as well, which could be due to the higher complexity of the forest structure at this site. Rainfall contributed more to soil inputs of K, Ca, Mg and S than litterfall at both sites. The nutrient residence times in the litter layer were higher and the index of nutrient use efficiency was lower at the most affected site. It was concluded that nutrient cycling was disturbed by air pollution at both sites, but to a greater extent at MAS. The main consequences of the air pollution stress were detected in the flux of nutrients through litterfall and in the litter layer on the forest floor.

Rikottujen ikkunoiden nollatoleranssi. Tutkimus New Yorkin rikoksentorjunnan uuskonservatiivi-mallista Suomessa

Väitöskirja on kriminologista kontrollin ja rikoksentorjunnan tutkimusta sekä poliisitutkimusta. Kohteena on ympäri maailmaa levinnyt nollatoleranssiksi kutsuttu järjestyspoliisistrategia. Strategiaa kokeiltiin vuosituhannen vaihteessa vuoden kestäneessä järjestyksenvalvonnan hankkeessa Tampereella. Vaikka kyseessä oli kokeilu, niin tutkimuksessa osoitetaan toimintatavan olleen ja olevan pitkälti kiinteä osa perinteistä suomalaisen järjestyspoliisin toimintaperiaatetta. Artikkeliväitöskirja sisältää viisi vuosina 1998–2005 julkaistua kirjoitusta. Kokoavan yhteenvetoartikkelin tutkimusongelmat ovat seuraavat: Millaisia ovat Yhdysvaltojen ja Suomen järjestyspoliisitoiminnan nollatoleranssien mekanismien, kontekstien ja vaikutusten keskeiset erot ja yhtäläisyydet? Millainen on Tampereen nollatoleranssikokeilu ja New Yorkin rikottujen ikkunoiden nollatoleranssi rikoksentorjunnan arvioinnin ja moraalisäätelyn esimerkkeinä? Tampereen kokeilun prosessi- ja vaikuttavuusarviointitutkimus koostaa tutkimuksen empiirisen aineiston. Hankkeen alku- ja loppumittauksena toimi lomakekysely tamperelaisille (2 x n2000). Lisäksi analyysissä käytettiin kansalaiskyselyn uhrikyselyä, poliisin rikos- ja päivystyskeskustilastoja, Tilastokeskuksen tilastoja, hankkeen suoritelomakkeita sekä rangaistusvaatimus- ja rikesakkolomakkeita sekä kouluterveystutkimuksia. Tampereen poliiseille tehtiin lomakekysely ja teemahaastatteluja. Sosiaali-, nuoriso- ja vapaaehtoistyöntekijöitä sekä yli viisikymmentä tamperelaista nuorta sekä kymmenkunta tamperelaista aikuista haastateltiin. Yhdysvaltojen osalta nojaudutaan verrattain suureen määrään julkaistua korkeatasoista ja ajankohtaista kriminologista tutkimusta. New Yorkiin ja Yhdysvaltoihin sovelletussa hallintavalta- ja moraalisäätelyanalyysissa rikotut ikkunat -teoria osoittautuu uuskonservatiiviseksi moraaliprojektiksi, joka opastaa kaupunkeja hankkimaan itselleen oikeuden tiukkaan järjestyksenvalvontaan. Aiemmin sen oli estänyt kansalaisoikeusmyönteinen lakien tulkinta. New Yorkissa ja Tampereella syntyi useita kielteisiä sivu- ja vastavaikutuksia, kuten ongelmien siirtymistä (displacement). Tämä on yksi keskeinen tulos tilannetorjunnan ja kontrollin tehostamisen ja kohdistamisen hankkeissa. Tulokset haastavat arvioimaan kriittisesti, ovatko kaikki lapsiin ja nuoriin kohdistuvat varhaisen puuttumisen hankkeet seuraustensa perusteella oikeutettuja.

Sex determination in honey bees (Apinae and Meliponinae) and its consequences

The first experiments on sex determination in bees began with Dzierzon, Meves, Nachtsheim, Paulcke, Petrunkewitsch, Manning. Whiting, (1943) found multiple alleles in Bracon xo that are the Rosetta stone of sex determination in Hymenoptera. Whiting also discovered that some species of microhymenoptera do not possess xo sex alleles. Therefore, Hymenoptera apparently presents two types of sex determination superimposed on haplodiploidy. In the panmictic groups hemizygous (xo1, xo2,... xon) and homozygous (xo1xo1, xo2xo2... xonxon) are males while heterozygous (xo1xo2, ... xon-1xon) are females. There is no such series of xon in endogamous Hymenoptera, since the constant elimination of diploid males would be damaging to the population and the mutation of xo to xon would be quickly eliminated. Besides the Whiting hypothesis, four others are discussed. The new hypothesis of genomic imprinting, of Beukeboom, is eliminated since: a) spermatozoa that develop within the egg produce male tissue; b) telitokous parthenogenesis due to the fusion of two haploid cells develop into females; c) last instar larvae treated with juvenile hormone become queens. The Cunha and Kerr hypothesis (female determining genes are totally or partially additive and male determination is totally or partially nonadditive) explains all known cases. The xo is a female determining gene. Sex determination in social bees led to the gradual evolution of two systems of caste determination: one in which queens and workers are similar and males are very different (Apinae), and another in which workers and males are very similar and both very different from the queens (Meliponinae). This second system in stingless bees implies that many of the mutations that improve worker capacities also affect the males that will carry out some activities that in Apis are clearly female ones. Ten of these activities are described.

Signaled two-way avoidance learning using electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus as negative reinforcement: effects of visual and auditory cues as warning stimuli

The inferior colliculus is a primary relay for the processing of auditory information in the brainstem. The inferior colliculus is also part of the so-called brain aversion system as animals learn to switch off the electrical stimulation of this structure. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether associative learning occurs between aversion induced by electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus and visual and auditory warning stimuli. Rats implanted with electrodes into the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus were placed inside an open-field and thresholds for the escape response to electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus were determined. The rats were then placed inside a shuttle-box and submitted to a two-way avoidance paradigm. Electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus at the escape threshold (98.12 ± 6.15 (A, peak-to-peak) was used as negative reinforcement and light or tone as the warning stimulus. Each session consisted of 50 trials and was divided into two segments of 25 trials in order to determine the learning rate of the animals during the sessions. The rats learned to avoid the inferior colliculus stimulation when light was used as the warning stimulus (13.25 ± 0.60 s and 8.63 ± 0.93 s for latencies and 12.5 ± 2.04 and 19.62 ± 1.65 for frequencies in the first and second halves of the sessions, respectively, P<0.01 in both cases). No significant changes in latencies (14.75 ± 1.63 and 12.75 ± 1.44 s) or frequencies of responses (8.75 ± 1.20 and 11.25 ± 1.13) were seen when tone was used as the warning stimulus (P>0.05 in both cases). Taken together, the present results suggest that rats learn to avoid the inferior colliculus stimulation when light is used as the warning stimulus. However, this learning process does not occur when the neutral stimulus used is an acoustic one. Electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus may disturb the signal transmission of the stimulus to be conditioned from the inferior colliculus to higher brain structures such as amygdala

Collective Action in Commons: Its Diverse Ends and Consequences

Collective Action in Commons: Its Diverse Ends and Consequences explores new ways in which collective action theories can contribute to our understanding of natural resource management, especially the management of common-pools. Combining classical collective action theories and lessons from earlier empirical works, the study shows that cooperation among resource users is not only a possible solution to “the tragedy of the commons”, but it can be a part of the problem as well. That is, successful cooperation may increase the likelihood of resource depletion, for example, through more effective resource utilization or collusion against sanctioning and monitoring systems. The study also explores how analytic narratives can be used to tell the story behind problems of resource use and their solutions, including the diverse roles of cooperation.

Effects of lead and/or zinc exposure during the second stage of rapid postnatal brain growth on delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase and negative geotaxis of suckling rats

Lead has been shown to produce cognitive and motor deficits in young rats that could be mediated, at least in part, by inhibition of the zinc-containing heme biosynthetic enzyme delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (ALA-D). In the present study we investigated the effects of lead and/or zinc treatment during the second stage of rapid postnatal brain development on brain, kidney and blood ALA-D specific activity, as well as the negative geotaxis behavior of rats. Eight-day-old Wistar rats were injected intraperitoneally with saline, lead acetate (8 mg/kg) and/or zinc chloride (2 mg/kg) daily for five consecutive days. Twenty-four hours after treatment, ALA-D activity was determined in the absence and presence of DL-dithiothreitol (DTT). The negative geotaxis behavior was assessed in 9- to 13-day-old rats. Treatment with lead and/or zinc did not affect body, brain or kidney weights or brain- or kidney-to-body weight ratios of the animals. In spite of the absence of effect of any treatment on ALA-D specific activity in brain, kidney and blood, the reactivation index with DTT was higher in the groups treated with lead or lead + zinc than in the control group, in brain, kidney and blood (mean ± SEM; brain: 33.33 ± 4.34, 38.90 ± 8.24, 13.67 ± 3.41; kidney: 33.50 ± 2.97, 37.60 ± 2.67, 15.80 ± 2.66; blood: 63.95 ± 3.73, 56.43 ± 5.93, 31.07 ± 4.61, respectively, N = 9-11). The negative geotaxis response behavior was not affected by lead and/or zinc treatment. The results indicate that lead and/or zinc treatment during the second stage of rapid postnatal brain growth affected ALA-D, but zinc was not sufficient to protect the enzyme from the effects of lead in brain, kidney and blood.

Presence of the RHD pseudogene and the hybrid RHD-CE-Ds gene in Brazilians with the D-negative phenotype

The molecular basis for RHD pseudogene or RHDpsi is a 37-bp insertion in exon 4 of RHD. This insertion, found in two-thirds of D-negative Africans, appears to introduce a stop codon at position 210. The hybrid RHD-CE-Ds, where the 3' end of exon 3 and exons 4 to 8 are derived from RHCE, is associated with the VS+V- phenotype, and leads to a D-negative phenotype in people of African origin. We determined whether Brazilian blood donors of heterogeneous ethnic origin had RHDpsi and RHD-CE-Ds. DNA from 206 blood donors were tested for RHDpsi by a multiplex PCR that detects RHD, RHDpsi and the C and c alleles of RHCE. The RHD genotype was determined by comparison of size of amplified products associated with the RHD gene in both intron 4 and exon 10/3'-UTR. VS was determined by amplification of exon 5 of RHCE, and sequencing of PCR products was used to analyze C733G (Leu245Val). Twenty-two (11%) of the 206 D-negative Brazilians studied had the RHDpsi, 5 (2%) had the RHD-CE-Ds hybrid gene associated with the VS+V- phenotype, and 179 (87%) entirely lacked RHD. As expected, RHD was deleted in all the 50 individuals of Caucasian descent. Among the 156 individuals of African descent, 22 (14%) had inactive RHD and 3% had the RHD-CE-Ds hybrid gene. These data confirm that the inclusion of two different multiplex PCR for RHD is essential to test the D-negative Brazilian population in order to avoid false-positive typing of polytransfused patients and fetuses.

Assessing negative priming by attended distractors in a paper-and-pencil task

The paper-and-pencil digit-comparison task for assessing negative priming (NP) was introduced, using a referent-size-selection procedure that was demonstrated to enhance the effect. NP is indicated by slower responses to recently ignored items, and proposed within the clinical-experimental framework as a major cognitive index of active suppression of distracting information, critical to executive functioning. The digit-comparison task requires circling digits of a list with digit-asterisk pairs (a baseline measure for digit-selection), and the larger of two digits in each pair of the unrelated (with different digits in successive digit-pairs) and related lists (in which the smaller digit subsequently became a target). A total of 56 students (18-38 years) participated in two experiments that explored practice effects across lists and demonstrated reliable NP, i.e., slowing to complete the related list relative to the unrelated list, (F(2, 44) = 52.42, P < 0.0001). A 3rd experiment examined age-related effects. In the paper-and-pencil digit-comparison task, NP was reliable for the younger (N = 8, 18-24 years) and middle-aged adults (N = 8, 31-54 years), but absent for the older group (N = 8, 68-77 years). NP was also reduced with aging in a computer-implemented digit-comparison task, and preserved in a task typically used to test location-specific NP, accounting for the dissociation between identity- and spatial-based suppression of distractors (Rao R(3, 12) = 16.02, P < 0.0002). Since the paper-and-pencil digit-comparison task can be administered easily, it can be useful for neuropsychologists seeking practical measures of NP that do not require cumbersome technical equipment.

Negative inotropic and chronotropic effects on the guinea pig atrium of extracts obtained from Averrhoa carambola L. leaves

It has been reported that star fruit can lead to a fatal outcome in uremic patients. The intoxication syndrome consists of hiccups, mental confusion, dizziness, and vomiting. On the other hand, folk medicine uses teas and infusions of carambola leaves to treat headache, vomiting, cough, insomnia, and diabetes. This motivated us to determine if Averrhoa carambola can act on the contractility and automaticity of the guinea pig heart. We measured the atrial isometric force in stimulated left atria and determined the chronotropic changes in spontaneously beating right atria. The carambola leaf extracts (1.5 mg/ml) abolished the contractile force in a concentration-dependent manner. Among the crude, methanolic, ethanolic, aqueous, and acetic extracts, the aqueous one was the most potent (EC50 = 520 ± 94 µg/ml; flavonoids and tannins are the main constituents; Na+ and K+ contents in 1.0 mg/ml of aqueous extract were 0.12 ± 0.016 and 1.19 ± 0.15 mM, respectively). The aqueous extract abolished the positive Bowditch staircase phenomenon and reduced the inotropic response to CaCl2 (0.17-8.22 mM), events that are dependent on the cellular Ca2+ inward current. The adrenergic, muscarinic or opioid membrane receptors do not seem to participate in the mechanism of action of the cardioactive substance(s). In spontaneously beating atria, the aqueous extract promoted a negative chronotropic effect that was antagonized by 0.1 µM isoproterenol bitartrate. With this agonist, the EC50 of the aqueous extract increased from 133 ± 58 to 650 ± 100 µg/ml. These data regarding the effect of A. carambola on guinea pig atrial contractility and automaticity indicate an L-type Ca2+ channel blockade.

CaMKIIdelta overexpression in hypertrophy and heart failure: cellular consequences for excitation-contraction coupling

Ca/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIdelta (CaMKIIdelta) is the predominant isoform in the heart. During excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) CaMKII phosphorylates several Ca-handling proteins including ryanodine receptors (RyR), phospholamban, and L-type Ca channels. CaMKII expression and activity have been shown to correlate positively with impaired ejection fraction in the myocardium of patients with heart failure and CaMKII has been proposed to be a possible compensatory mechanism to keep hearts from complete failure. However, in addition to these acute effects on ECC, CaMKII was shown to be involved in hypertrophic signaling, termed excitation-transcription coupling (ETC). Thus, animal models have shown that overexpression of nuclear isoform CaMKIIdeltaB can induce myocyte hypertrophy. Recent study from our laboratory has suggested that transgenic overexpression of the cytosolic isoform CaMKIIdeltaC in mice causes severe heart failure with altered intracellular Ca handling and protein expression leading to reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca content. Interestingly, the frequency of diastolic spontaneous SR Ca release events (or opening of RyR) was greatly enhanced, demonstrating increased diastolic SR Ca leak. This was attributed to increased CaMKII-dependent RyR phosphorylation, resulting in increased and prolonged openings of RyR since Ca spark frequency could be reduced back to normal levels by CaMKII inhibition. This review focuses on acute and chronic effects of CaMKII in ECC and ETC. In summary, CaMKII overexpression can lead to heart failure and CaMKII-dependent RyR hyperphosphorylation seems to be a novel and important mechanism in ECC due to SR Ca leak which may be important in the pathogenesis of heart failure.

Contested dominance modifies the anovulatory consequences of social subordination in female marmosets

Dominance status among female marmosets is reflected in agonistic behavior and ovarian function. Socially dominant females receive submissive behavior from subordinates, while exhibiting normal ovulatory function. Subordinate females, however, receive agonistic behavior from dominants, while exhibiting reduced or absent ovulatory function. Such disparity in female fertility is not absolute, and groups with two breeding females have been described. The data reported here were obtained from 8 female-female pairs of captive female marmosets, each housed with a single unrelated male. Pairs were classified into two groups: "uncontested" dominance (UD) and "contested" dominance (CD), with 4 pairs each. Dominant females in UD pairs showed significantly higher frequencies (4.1) of agonism (piloerection, attack and chasing) than their subordinates (0.36), and agonistic behaviors were overall more frequently displayed by CD than by UD pairs. Subordinates in CD pairs exhibited more agonistic behavior (2.9) than subordinates in UD pairs (0.36), which displayed significantly more submissive (6.97) behaviors than their dominants (0.35). The data suggest that there is more than one kind of dominance relationship between female common marmosets. Assessment of progesterone levels showed that while subordinates in UD pairs appeared to be anovulatory, the degree of ovulatory disruption in subordinates of CD pairs was more varied and less complete. We suggest that such variation in female-female social dominance relationships and the associated variation in the degree and reliability of fertility suppression may explain variations of the reproductive condition of free-living groups of common marmosets.