Alleviating poverty by engaging in microenterprise : how can INGOs in Vietnam help microenterprises overcome market constraints?

Microenterprise programs (MEPs) that aim to help poor communities engage in micro businesses have contributed significantly to poverty reduction in developing countries. However, a review of the literature suggests that the current approach adopted by MEPs has mainly provided services to microenterprises (MEs) based on what MEPs can supply rather than on what MEs actually need and what the market demands. Therefore, MEPs’ approaches are more likely to be supply driven. Yet when there are market constraints, such as high competition or low demand, this approach has been linked to the failure of MEs in their infancy. The alternative is a demand driven approach, in which MEPs provide MEs with support based on what MEs need, and what markets demand. However, research examining the application of this approach is limited. In order to gain an understanding of the approaches of MEPs, to identify whether these approaches are demand or supply driven, and to discover how these approaches are used to help MEs operate under market constraints, this study examined the operation of International Non-Government Organisations (INGOs) operating in Vietnam. This exploratory study involved in-depth interviews with senior executives from 10 INGOs. Thematic analysis was used to analyse data collected from the in-depth interviews. The results were further verified with publicly available data from the INGOs. The findings of this research indicate that the demand driven approach is dominant in most approaches of INGOs in Vietnam, and has become a key approach in helping MEs deal with market constraints. Further, rather than explaining the demand and supply driven dichotomy, the findings highlight that MEPs’ approaches can be viewed in two dimensions: a participant-demand driven approach focusing on the basic needs and capabilities of the extremely poor, irrespective of market demands; and a market-demand driven approach focusing on the capabilities of poor communities, while also accommodating market demands. This research provides contemporary and practical insights into the DD and SD approaches, and a better understanding of MEPs’ approaches to MED in Vietnam.

Benefits of publicly available data

The National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study (NMMAPS) was designed to examine the health effects of air pollution in the United States. The primary question was whether particulate matter was responsible for the associations between air pollution and daily mortality. Secondary questions concerned measurement error in air pollution and mortality displacement.1 Since then, NMMAPS has been used to answer many important questions in environmental epidemiology...

Unfair terms in residential land contracts : will the Australian consumer law improve a buyer’s bargaining position?

The prohibition on unfair contract terms in standard form consumer contracts has the potential to significantly impact on the terms of contracts for the sale of land. The definition of ‘consumer contract’ includes contracts for the sale or grant of an interest in land to an individual wholly or predominantly for personal or domestic use. Therefore, a contract for the purchase of a residence for personal occupation by the buyer, as opposed to a purchase for investment purposes, will be a consumer contract potentially attracting the application of the unfair terms provisions. Significant consumer protection mechanisms already exist in most state jurisdictions requiring disclosure of relevant matters to the buyer and providing remedies for the provision of misleading conduct. Minimal evidence of unfair terms in land contract was presented to the Productivity Commission Inquiry into the Australian Consumer Policy Framework raising the question as to whether there is an identified problem of unfair terms in real estate contracts and if so, whether the same economic and ethical rationales justify regulatory intervention. This article examines what effect if any the introduction of the unfair contract provisions will have on the enforcement of residential land contracts and the viability of previously accepted conditions if challenged as being “unfair terms”. The article concludes that despite the existence of several potentially unfair terms in some land contracts, the intervention of the rules of equity to overcome perceived hardship or unfairness to buyers from strict enforcement of terms means the unfair terms provisions are only likely to operate on terms untouched by those principles. In the authors’ view the scope for operation of the unfair terms provisions will be limited to terms untouched by the principles of equity and consumer protection legislation making it unlikely that there will be any significant realignment of the contractual obligations and rights of buyers and sellers of land.

High court determines that it cannot be assumed that hot chips are only eaten at lunch

In Strong v Woolworth Ltd (t/as Big W) (2012) 285 ALR 420 the appellant was injured when she fell at a shopping centre outside the respondent’s premises. The appellant was disabled, having had her right leg amputated above the knee and therefore walked with crutches. One of the crutches came into contact with a hot potato chip which was on the floor, causing the crutch to slip and the appellant to fall. The appellant sued in negligence, alleging that the respondent was in breach of its duty of care by failing to institute and maintain a cleaning system to detect spillages and foreign objects within its sidewalk sales area. The issue before the High Court was whether it could be established on the balance of probabilities as to when the hot chip had fallen onto the ground so as to prove causation in fact...

See and avoid using on-board computer vision

The integration of unmanned aircraft into civil airspace is a complex issue. One key question is whether unmanned aircraft can operate just as safely as their manned counterparts. The absence of a human pilot in unmanned aircraft automatically points to a deficiency that is the lack of an inherent see-and-avoid capability. To date, regulators have mandated that an “equivalent level of safety” be demonstrated before UAVs are permitted to routinely operate in civil airspace. This chapter proposes techniques, methods, and hardware integrations that describe a “sense-and-avoid” system designed to address the lack of a see-and-avoid capability in UAVs.

Development issues for the creative economy in Malaysia

Cultural tourism and creative industries have intersecting policy agendas and economic interdependencies. Most studies of the creative industries have focused on western countries. Cultural tourism is rarely included. However the arrival of the creative economy and its movement through developing countries has changed the relationship. Supporters of the creative economy now see fit to include tourism. This thesis addresses the development of the creative economy in Malaysia. The thesis conducted case studies on animation and museum sectors in Malaysia. These two case studies provide information on the development of creative economy in Malaysia. The study found that a top-down cultural management approach is being practised but that Malaysia is now influenced by new ideas concerning innovation and technical creativity. The study examined whether or not technical innovation by itself is enough. The reference points here are the Multimedia Super Corridor in Cyberjaya and other similar projects in the region. The museum case study was situated in Malacca. It showed that museums needed to adapt new media and new experiences to remain relevant in today’s world. In applying a case study approach, the thesis made use of interviews with key stakeholders, as well consulting numerous policy documents and web sites. Both case studies imitated similar products and services in the market but added local characteristics. This research project contributes significantly to the existing body of knowledge in the field of creative economy within the context of developing countries. Finally the thesis makes recommendations for Malaysia to better position itself in the regional economy while retaining its distinctive cultural identity.

Using digital storytelling as a change agent for women’s participation in the Turkish public sphere

This thesis builds on the scholarship and practical know-how that have emerged from digital storytelling projects around the world with diverse groups of participants in a range of institutions. I have used the results of these projects to explore the opportunities Digital Storytelling workshop practice may hold for women’s participation in the public sphere in Turkey. Through theoretical discussion and practical experimentation, I examine the potential of Digital Storytelling workshop practice as a means to promote agency and self-expression in a feminist activist organisation, focusing in particular on whether Digital Storytelling can be used as a change agent – as a tool for challenging the idea of public sphere in ways that make it more inclusive of women’s participation. The thesis engages with feminist scholarship’s critiques of the public/private dichotomy, as well as the concept of gender, to seek connections with narrative identity in the light of the analysis of the Digital Storytelling workshops and the digital stories that were created in a feminist context. The study on which this thesis is based saw the introduction of Digital Storytelling to Turkey for the first time through workshops in Istanbul and Antakya, conducted in partnership with the feminist activist organisation Amargi Women’s Academy. Applying the principles of feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis as used by Judith Baxter (2003), I examine two sets of data collected in this project. First, I analyse the interactions during the Digital Storytelling workshops, where women from Amargi created their digital stories in a collaborative setting. This is done through participatory observation notes and in-depth interviews with the workshop participants and facilitators. Second, I seek to uncover the strategies that these women used to ‘speak back to power’ in their digital stories, reading these as texts. I conclude that women from the Amargi network used the workshops to create digital content in order to communicate their concerns about issues that can be classified as gender-specific matters. During this process, they also cooperated, established new connections, and at the end of the process even defined new ways of using, circulating and repurposing their digital stories for feminist activism in Turkey. My research thereby contributes equally to feminist discourse analysis, the study of new-media usage and uptake among non-professionals, and the study of media–public sphere interactions in a particular national setting: Turkey. My conclusion indicates that the process of production is as important as the product itself, and from that I am able to draw out some strategies for developing digitally equipped women’s activism in Turkey.

Does section 420A impose ‘strict liability’ upon controllers for acts or omissions of agents and experts?

This article addresses in depth the question of whether section 420A of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) imposes ‘strict liability’ upon a controller for the failure of an agent or expert to take reasonable care. The weight of existing authority appears to suggest that controllers are liable under s 420A for the carelessness of their agents or expert advisers. However, a closer analysis of the text of the provision and relevant Australian and UK case law demonstrates that this aspect of the statutory construction of s 420A remains very much an open question. This article ultimately contends for a construction of s 420A which requires a controller to adequately supervise and scrutinise, but which does not render a blameless controller strictly liable for all careless acts and omissions of agents and expert advisers.

Strontium-containing mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds with improved osteogenic/cementogenic differentiation of periodontal ligament cells for periodontal tissue engineering

To achieve the ultimate goal of periodontal tissue engineering, it is of great importance to develop bioactive scaffolds which could stimulate the osteogenic/cementogenic differentiation of periodontal ligament cells (PDLCs) for the favorable regeneration of alveolar bone, root cementum, and periodontal ligament. Strontium (Sr) and Sr-containing biomaterials have been found to induce osteoblast activity. However, there is no systematic report about the interaction between Sr or Sr-containing biomaterials and PDLCs for periodontal tissue engineering. The aims of this study were to prepare Sr-containing mesoporous bioactive glass (Sr-MBG) scaffolds and investigate whether the addition of Sr could stimulate the osteogenic/cementogenic differentiation of PDLCs in tissue engineering scaffold system. The composition, microstructure and mesopore properties (specific surface area, nano-pore volume and nano-pore distribution) of Sr-MBG scaffolds were characterized. The proliferation, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and osteogenesis/cementogenesis-related gene expression (ALP, Runx2, Col I, OPN and CEMP1) of PDLCs on different kinds of Sr-MBG scaffolds were systematically investigated. The results show that Sr plays an important role in influencing the mesoporous structure of MBG scaffolds in which high contents of Sr decreased the well-ordered mesopores as well as their surface area/pore volume. Sr2+ ions could be released from Sr-MBG scaffolds in a controlled way. The incorporation of Sr into MBG scaffolds has significantly stimulated ALP activity and osteogenesis/cementogenesis-related gene expression of PDLCs. Furthermore, Sr-MBG scaffolds in simulated body fluids environment still maintained excellent apatite-mineralization ability. The study suggests that the incorporation of Sr into MBG scaffolds is a viable way to stimulate the biological response of PDLCs. Sr-MBG scaffolds are a promising bioactive material for periodontal tissue engineering application.

Exploring antecedent factors in (Queensland) secondary school teachers’ early retirement intentions

Mature-age secondary teachers offer teaching a wealth of knowledge and skills that can contribute greatly to the quality of education. However, as with the greater workforce, there is an increasing trend for mature-age teachers to elect to retire early or to move into other work. Despite studies suggesting that teachers may be negatively affected by stress, there has been no research into the attitudes of mature-age teachers relating to early retirement and whether these or other factors are instrumental in their decision to retire from teaching. There is, however, a broad range of studies, commentary and analyses on ageing and work that can be utilised to develop a powerful analytical framework to identify the factors that can potentially influence the decision to take early retirement. This study examined the antecedent factors which influenced the early retirement decisions in 16 Queensland secondary school teachers. This study examined factors relating to the teachers decision to retire early and explored school and other factors relating to their decision. In addition, differences between urban and rural secondary school teachers were examined. Given the potentially complex nature of teachers. retirement decisions, the study utilised a qualitative approach. The study found that retired secondary teachers are confronted by ageing realities that are not responded to adequately by the education system, and participants expressed a general dissatisfaction with aspects of school management, especially as it related to bullying and non-inclusion in teaching-related decision making. This study also identified organisational issues within Education Queensland which contributed to system failures that affected mature-age teachers that need to be addressed. This study is one of the first studies to explore the factors influencing early retirement decisions in teachers. The implications of these factors on policy for Education Queensland and for workplace policies in general are discussed.

Development of a transformation system for sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is the world’s fifth major cereal crop and holds importance as a construction material, food and fodder source. More recently, the potential of this plant as a biofuel source has been noted. Despite its agronomic importance, the use of sorghum production is being constrained by both biotic and abiotic factors. These challenges could be addressed by the use of genetic engineering strategies to complement conventional breeding techniques. However, sorghum is one of the most recalcitrant crops for genetic modification with the lack of an efficient tissue culture system being amongst the chief reasons. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop an efficient tissue culture system for establishing regenerable embryogenic cell lines, micropropagation and acclimatisation for Sorghum bicolor and use this to optimise parameters for genetic transformation via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and microprojectile bombardment. Using five different sorghum cultivars, SA281, 296B, SC49, Wray and Rio, numerous parameters were investigated in an attempt to establish an efficient and reproducible tissue culture and transformation system. Using immature embryos (IEs) as explants, regenerable embryogenic cell lines (ECLs) could only be established from cultivars SA281 and 296B. Large amounts of phenolics were produced from IEs of cultivars, SC49, Wary and Rio, and these compounds severely hindered callus formation and development. Cultivar SA281 also produced phenolics during regeneration. Attempts to suppress the production of these compounds in cultivars SA281 and SC49 using activated charcoal, PVP, ascorbic acid, citric acid and liquid filter paper bridge methods were either ineffective or had a detrimental effect on embryogenic callus formation, development and regeneration. Immature embryos sourced during summer were found to be far more responsive in vitro than those sourced during winter. In an attempt to overcome this problem, IEs were sourced from sorghum grown under summer conditions in either a temperature controlled glasshouse or a growth chamber. However, the performance of these explants was still inferior to that of natural summer-sourced explants. Leaf whorls, mature embryos, shoot tips and leaf primordia were found to be unsuitable as explants for establishing ECLs in sorghum cultivars SA281 and 296B. Using the florets of immature inflorescences (IFs) as explants, however, ECLs were established and regenerated for these cultivars, as well as for cultivar Tx430, using callus induction media, SCIM, and regeneration media, VWRM. The best in vitro responses, from the largest possible sized IFs, were obtained using plants at the FL-2 stage (where the last fully opened leaf was two leaves away from the flag leaf). Immature inflorescences could be stored at 25oC for up to three days without affecting their in vitro responses. Compared to IEs, the IFs were more robust in tissue culture and showed responses which were season and growth condition independent. A micropropagation protocol for sorghum was developed in this study. The optimum plant growth regulator (PGR) combination for the micropropagation of in vitro regenerated plantlets was found to be 1.0 mg/L BAP in combination with 0.5 mg/L NAA. With this protocol, cultivars 296B and SA281 produced an average of 57 and 13 off-shoots per plantlet, respectively. The plantlets were successfully acclimatised and developed into phenotypically normal plants that set seeds. A simplified acclimatisation protocol for in vitro regenerated plantlets was also developed. This protocol involved deflasking in vitro plantlets with at least 2 fully-opened healthy leaves and at least 3 roots longer than 1.5 cm, washing the media from the roots with running tap water, planting in 100 mm pots and placing in plastic trays covered with a clear plastic bag in a plant growth chamber. After seven days, the corners of the plastic cover were opened and the bags were completely removed after 10 days. All plantlets were successfully acclimatised regardless of whether 1:1 perlite:potting mix, potting mix, UC mix or vermiculite were used as potting substrates. Parameters were optimised for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation (AMT) of cultivars SA281, 296B and Tx430. The optimal conditions were the use of Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 at an inoculum density of 0.5 OD600nm, heat shock at 43oC for 3 min, use of the surfactant Pluronic F-68 (0.02% w/v) in the inoculation media with a pH of 5.2 and a 3 day co-cultivation period in dark at 22oC. Using these parameters, high frequencies of transient GFP expression was observed in IEs precultured on callus initiation media for 1-7 days as well as in four weeks old IE- and IF-derived callus. Cultivar SA281 appeared very sensitive to Agrobacterium since all tissue turned necrotic within two weeks post-exposure. For cultivar 296B, GFP expression was observed up to 20 days post co-cultivation but no stably transformed plants were regenerated. Using cultivar Tx430, GFP was expressed for up to 50 days post co-cultivation. Although no stably transformed plants of this cultivar were regenerated, this was most likely due to the use of unsuitable regeneration media. Parameters were optimised for transformation by particle bombardment (PB) of cultivars SA281, 296B and Tx430. The optimal conditions were use of 3-7 days old IEs and 4 weeks old IF callus, 4 hour pre- and post-bombardment osmoticum treatment, use of 0.6 µm gold microparticles, helium pressure of 1500 kPa and target distance of 15 cm. Using these parameters for PB, transient GFP expression was observed for up to 14, 30 and 50 days for cultivars SA281, 296B and Tx430, respectively. Further, the use of PB resulted in less tissue necrosis compared to AMT for the respective cultivars. Despite the presence of transient GFP expression, no stably transformed plants were regenerated. The establishment of regenerable ECLs and the optimization of AMT and PB parameters in this study provides a platform for future efforts to develop an efficient transformation protocol for sorghum. The development of GM sorghum will be an important step towards improving its agronomic properties as well as its exploitation for biofuel production.

Land fraud and inappropriate dealings in an electronic environment : An Australian and New Zealand perspective

The thesis presented in this paper is that the land fraud committed by Matthew Perrin in Queensland and inflicted upon Roger Mildenhall in Western Australia demonstrates the need for urgent procedural reform to the conveyancing process. Should this not occur, then calls to reform the substantive principles of the Torrens system will be heard throughout the jurisdictions that adopt title by registration, particularly in those places where immediate indefeasibility is still the norm. This paper closely examines the factual matrix behind both of these frauds, and asks what steps should have been taken to prevent them occurring. With 2012 bringing us Australian legislation embedding a national e-conveyancing system and a new Land Transfer Act for New Zealand we ask what legislative measures should be introduced to minimise the potential for such fraud. In undertaking this study, we reflect on whether the activities of Perrin and the criminals responsible for stealing Mildenhall's land would have succeeded under the present system for automated registration utilised in New Zealand.

Experiences of a walking intervention in a University community : Qualitative perspectives

Background: This study explored the experiences of university employees that participated in a walking intervention that encouraged individuals to walk more throughout their workday. The 10-week program was comprised of 5 phases (i.e. baseline, anticipating barriers, short planned walks, longer planned walks and maintenance) and utilized a pedometer diary and an online website for logging steps. The pedometer diary included “action plans” for addressing barriers and planning walking and the online dashboard provided graphical outputs that allowed participants to visualize whether they were reaching or exceeding their step targets. Methods: A subsample of 12 academic and administrative employees from the study completed open ended questionnaires at the end of the study. The questions focused on capturing the major themes of benefits/mediators and problems/moderators of the program and were assessed using phenomenological approaches. Results: Participants found a raised consciousness of physical inactivity throughout the work day. They also found it useful to have a graphical display of physical activity patterns, but found time constraints and lack of managerial support to be the primary barriers/moderators of the program. Those most likely to withdraw from the program experienced technical difficulties with objective monitors and the online website. Conclusions: Findings highlight the value in being involved in a group forum and provide insights into the challenges of supporting such programs within the workplace.

Children physical activity correlates and parent physical activity do not have a strong association with physical activity amongst adolescents

Background: Physical activity is a key modifiable behavior impacting a number of important health outcomes. The path to developing chronic diseases commonly commences with lifestyle patterns developed during childhood and adolescence. This study examined whether parent physical activity and other factors correlated with physical activity amongst children are associated with self-reported physical activity in adolescents. Methods: A total of 115 adolescents (aged 12-14) and their parents completed questionnaire assessments. Self-reported physical activity was measured amongst adolescents and their parents using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (IPAQ-A), and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) respectively. Adolescents also completed the Children’s Physical Activity Correlates (CPAC), which measured factors that have previously demonstrated association with physical activity amongst children. To examine whether parent physical activity or items from the CPAC were associated with self-reported adolescent physical activity, backward step-wise regression was undertaken. One item was removed at each step in descending order of significance (until two tailed item alpha=0.05 was achieved). Results: A total of 93 (80.9%) adolescents and their parents had complete data sets and were included in the analysis. Independent variables were removed in the order: perceptions of parental role modeling; importance of exercise; perceptions of parental encouragement; peer acceptance; fun of physical exertion; perceived competence; parent physical activity; self-esteem; liking of exercise; and parental influence. The only variable remaining in the model was ‘liking of games and sport’ (p=0.003, adjusted r-squared=0.085). Discussion: These findings indicate that factors associated with self-reported physical activity in adolescents are not necessarily the same as younger children (aged 8-11). While ‘liking of games and sport’ was included in the final model, the r-squared value did not indicate a strong association. Interestingly, parent self-reported physical activity was not included in the final model. It is likely that adolescent physical activity may be influenced by a variety of direct and indirect forms of socialization. These findings do support the view that intrinsically motivated themes such as the liking of games and sport take precedence over outside influences, like those presented by parents, in determining youth physical activity behaviors. These findings do not suggest that parents have no influence on adolescent physical activity patterns, but rather, the influence is likely to be more complex than physical activity behavior modeling perceived by the adolescent. Further research in this field is warranted in order to better understand potential contributors to successful physical activity promotion interventions amongst young adolescents.

The experiences of learner drivers, provisional drivers and supervisors with graduated driver licensing in two Australian jurisdictions

Newly licensed drivers on a provisional or intermediate licence have the highest crash risk when compared with any other group of drivers. In comparison, learner drivers have the lowest crash risk. Graduated driver licensing is one countermeasure that has been demonstrated to effectively reduce the crashes of novice drivers. This thesis examined the graduated driver licensing systems in two Australian states in order to better understand the behaviour of learner drivers, provisional drivers and the supervisors of learner drivers. By doing this, the thesis investigated the personal, social and environmental influences on novice driver behaviour as well as providing effective baseline data against which to measure subsequent changes to the licensing systems. In the first study, conducted prior to the changes to the graduated driver licensing system introduced in mid-2007, drivers who had recently obtained their provisional licence in Queensland and New South Wales were interviewed by telephone regarding their experiences while driving on their learner licence. Of the 687 eligible people approached to participate at driver licensing centres, 392 completed the study representing a response rate of 57.1 per cent. At the time the data was collected, New South Wales represented a more extensive graduated driver licensing system when compared with Queensland. The results suggested that requiring learners to complete a mandated number of hours of supervised practice impacts on the amount of hours that learners report completing. While most learners from New South Wales reported meeting the requirement to complete 50 hours of practice, it appears that many stopped practising soon after this goal was achieved. In contrast, learners from Queensland, who were not required to complete a specific number of hours at the time of the survey, tended to fall into three groups. The first group appeared to complete the minimum number of hours required to pass the test (less than 26 hours), the second group completed 26 to 50 hours of supervised practice while the third group completed significantly more practice than the first two groups (over 100 hours of supervised practice). Learner drivers in both states reported generally complying with the road laws and were unlikely to report that they had been caught breaking the road rules. They also indicated that they planned to obey the road laws once they obtained their provisional licence. However, they were less likely to intend to comply with recommended actions to reduce crash risk such as limiting their driving at night. This study also identified that there were relatively low levels of unaccompanied driving (approximately 15 per cent of the sample), very few driving offences committed (five per cent of the sample) and that learner drivers tended to use a mix of private and professional supervisors (although the majority of practice is undertaken with private supervisors). Consistent with the international literature, this study identified that very few learner drivers had experienced a crash (six per cent) while on their learner licence. The second study was also conducted prior to changes to the graduated driver licensing system and involved follow up interviews with the participants of the first study after they had approximately 21 months driving experience on their provisional licence. Of the 392 participants that completed the first study, 233 participants completed the second interview (representing a response rate of 59.4 per cent). As with the first study, at the time the data was collected, New South Wales had a more extensive graduated driver licensing system than Queensland. For instance, novice drivers from New South Wales were required to progress through two provisional licence phases (P1 and P2) while there was only one provisional licence phase in Queensland. Among the participants in this second study, almost all provisional drivers (97.9 per cent) owned or had access to a vehicle for regular driving. They reported that they were unlikely to break road rules, such as driving after a couple of drinks, but were also unlikely to comply with recommended actions, such as limiting their driving at night. When their provisional driving behaviour was compared to the stated intentions from the first study, the results suggested that their intentions were not a strong predictor of their subsequent behaviour. Their perception of risk associated with driving declined from when they first obtained their learner licence to when they had acquired provisional driving experience. Just over 25 per cent of participants in study two reported that they had been caught committing driving offences while on their provisional licence. Nearly one-third of participants had crashed while driving on a provisional licence, although few of these crashes resulted in injuries or hospitalisations. To complement the first two studies, the third study examined the experiences of supervisors of learner drivers, as well as their perceptions of their learner’s experiences. This study was undertaken after the introduction of the new graduated driver licensing systems in Queensland and New South Wales in mid- 2007, providing insights into the impacts of these changes from the perspective of supervisors. The third study involved an internet survey of 552 supervisors of learner drivers. Within the sample, approximately 50 per cent of participants supervised their own child. Other supervisors of the learner drivers included other parents or stepparents, professional driving instructors and siblings. For two-thirds of the sample, this was the first learner driver that they had supervised. Participants had provided an average of 54.82 hours (sd = 67.19) of supervision. Seventy-three per cent of participants indicated that their learners’ logbooks were accurate or very accurate in most cases, although parents were more likely than non-parents to report that their learners’ logbook was accurate (F (1,546) = 7.74, p = .006). There was no difference between parents and non-parents regarding whether they believed the log book system was effective (F (1,546) = .01, p = .913). The majority of the sample reported that their learner driver had had some professional driving lessons. Notwithstanding this, a significant proportion (72.5 per cent) believed that parents should be either very involved or involved in teaching their child to drive, with parents being more likely than non-parents to hold this belief. In the post mid-2007 graduated driver licensing system, Queensland learner drivers are able to record three hours of supervised practice in their log book for every hour that is completed with a professional driving instructor, up to a total of ten hours. Despite this, there was no difference identified between Queensland and New South Wales participants regarding the amount of time that they reported their learners spent with professional driving instructors (X2(1) = 2.56, p = .110). Supervisors from New South Wales were more likely to ensure that their learner driver complied with the road laws. Additionally, with the exception of drug driving laws, New South Wales supervisors believed it was more important to teach safety-related behaviours such as remaining within the speed limit, car control and hazard perception than those from Queensland. This may be indicative of more intensive road safety educational efforts in New South Wales or the longer time that graduated driver licensing has operated in that jurisdiction. However, other factors may have contributed to these findings and further research is required to explore the issue. In addition, supervisors reported that their learner driver was involved in very few crashes (3.4 per cent) and offences (2.7 per cent). This relatively low reported crash rate is similar to that identified in the first study. Most of the graduated driver licensing research to date has been applied in nature and lacked a strong theoretical foundation. These studies used Akers’ social learning theory to explore the self-reported behaviour of novice drivers and their supervisors. This theory was selected as it has previously been found to provide a relatively comprehensive framework for explaining a range of driver behaviours including novice driver behaviour. Sensation seeking was also used in the first two studies to complement the non-social rewards component of Akers’ social learning theory. This program of research identified that both Akers’ social learning theory and sensation seeking were useful in predicting the behaviour of learner and provisional drivers over and above socio-demographic factors. Within the first study, Akers’ social learning theory accounted for an additional 22 per cent of the variance in learner driver compliance with the law, over and above a range of socio-demographic factors such as age, gender and income. The two constructs within Akers’ theory which were significant predictors of learner driver compliance were the behavioural dimension of differential association relating to friends, and anticipated rewards. Sensation seeking predicted an additional six per cent of the variance in learner driver compliance with the law. When considering a learner driver’s intention to comply with the law while driving on a provisional licence, Akers’ social learning theory accounted for an additional 10 per cent of the variance above socio-demographic factors with anticipated rewards being a significant predictor. Sensation seeking predicted an additional four per cent of the variance. The results suggest that the more rewards individuals anticipate for complying with the law, the more likely they are to obey the road rules. Further research is needed to identify which specific rewards are most likely to encourage novice drivers’ compliance with the law. In the second study, Akers’ social learning theory predicted an additional 40 per cent of the variance in self-reported compliance with road rules over and above socio-demographic factors while sensation seeking accounted for an additional five per cent of the variance. A number of Aker’s social learning theory constructs significantly predicted provisional driver compliance with the law, including the behavioural dimension of differential association for friends, the normative dimension of differential association, personal attitudes and anticipated punishments. The consistent prediction of additional variance by sensation seeking over and above the variables within Akers’ social learning theory in both studies one and two suggests that sensation seeking is not fully captured within the non social rewards dimension of Akers’ social learning theory, at least for novice drivers. It appears that novice drivers are strongly influenced by the desire to engage in new and intense experiences. While socio-demographic factors and the perception of risk associated with driving had an important role in predicting the behaviour of the supervisors of learner drivers, Akers’ social learning theory provided further levels of prediction over and above these factors. The Akers’ social learning theory variables predicted an additional 14 per cent of the variance in the extent to which supervisors ensured that their learners complied with the law and an additional eight per cent of the variance in the supervisors’ provision of a range of practice experiences. The normative dimension of differential association, personal attitudes towards the use of professional driving instructors and anticipated rewards were significant predictors for supervisors ensuring that their learner complied with the road laws, while the normative dimension was important for range of practice. This suggests that supervisors who engage with other supervisors who ensure their learner complies with the road laws and provide a range of practice to their own learners are more likely to also engage in these behaviours. Within this program of research, there were several limitations including the method of recruitment of participants within the first study, the lower participation rate in the second study, an inability to calculate a response rate for study three and the use of self-report data for all three studies. Within the first study, participants were only recruited from larger driver licensing centres to ensure that there was a sufficient throughput of drivers to approach. This may have biased the results due to the possible differences in learners that obtain their licences in locations with smaller licensing centres. Only 59.4 per cent of the sample in the first study completed the second study. This may be a limitation if there was a common reason why those not participating were unable to complete the interview leading to a systematic impact on the results. The third study used a combination of a convenience and snowball sampling which meant that it was not possible to calculate a response rate. All three studies used self-report data which, in many cases, is considered a limitation. However, self-report data may be the only method that can be used to obtain some information. This program of research has a number of implications for countermeasures in both the learner licence phase and the provisional licence phase. During the learner phase, licensing authorities need to carefully consider the number of hours that they mandate learner drivers must complete before they obtain their provisional driving licence. If they mandate an insufficient number of hours, there may be inadvertent negative effects as a result of setting too low a limit. This research suggests that logbooks may be a useful tool for learners and their supervisors in recording and structuring their supervised practice. However, it would appear that the usage rates for logbooks will remain low if they remain voluntary. One strategy for achieving larger amounts of supervised practice is for learner drivers and their supervisors to make supervised practice part of their everyday activities. As well as assisting the learner driver to accumulate the required number of hours of supervised practice, it would ensure that they gain experience in the types of environments that they will probably encounter when driving unaccompanied in the future, such as to and from education or work commitments. There is also a need for policy processes to ensure that parents and professional driving instructors communicate effectively regarding the learner driver’s progress. This is required as most learners spend at least some time with a professional instructor despite receiving significant amounts of practice with a private supervisor. However, many supervisors did not discuss their learner’s progress with the driving instructor. During the provisional phase, there is a need to strengthen countermeasures to address the high crash risk of these drivers. Although many of these crashes are minor, most involve at least one other vehicle. Therefore, there are social and economic benefits to reducing these crashes. If the new, post-2007 graduated driver licensing systems do not significantly reduce crash risk, there may be a need to introduce further provisional licence restrictions such as separate night driving and peer passenger restrictions (as opposed to the hybrid version of these two restrictions operating in both Queensland and New South Wales). Provisional drivers appear to be more likely to obey some provisional licence laws, such as lower blood alcohol content limits, than others such as speed limits. Therefore, there may be a need to introduce countermeasures to encourage provisional drivers to comply with specific restrictions. When combined, these studies provided significant information regarding graduated driver licensing programs. This program of research has investigated graduated driver licensing utilising a cross-sectional and longitudinal design in order to develop our understanding of the experiences of novice drivers that progress through the system in order to help reduce crash risk once novice drivers commence driving by themselves.