Implicit Motives of Elite Athletes, Sport Students, and Non-Sport Students: Power, Affiliation, and Achievement

Research on performance and participation in (elite) sports has predominantly focused on variables relating to the achievement motive. However, some authors describe that athletes in interactive sports (e.g. tennis) are assumed to exhibit a strong power motive in order to win competitive matches, usually resulting in the demonstration of dominance or the experience of inferiority. The affiliation motive, by contrast, is not functional in elite sports due to their competitive rather than social character. In the present chapter we discuss how the three basic implicit motives of power, affiliation, and achievement relate to the sports field and describe how they can affect athletes’ performance. We present empirical evidence for the existence of different strengths of the three basic motives in three studies with elite athletes (Study 1), non-elite athletes (sport students, Study 2), and non-sport students infrequently involved in sports (Study 3). Our results suggest that elite athletes show higher levels of the implicit power motive compared to sport students, who in turn have higher power motives than non-sport students. Surprisingly, elite athletes do not differ from non-sport students regarding their implicit achievement motive. Moreover, non-sport students exhibit higher implicit affiliation motive scores than sport students and elite athletes. We propose that research on motivational processes of highly competitive athletes should – in addition to the achievement motive – focus more on motive themes like the implicit motives of power and affiliation.

The two modes of an athlete: Dual-process theories in the field of sport

The goal of the present article is to introduce dual-process theories – in particular the default-interventionist model – as an overarching framework for attention-related research in sports. Dual-process theories propose that two different types of processing guide human behavior. Type 1 processing is independent of available working memory capacity (WMC), whereas Type 2 processing depends on available working memory capacity. We review the latest theoretical developments on dual-process theories and present evidence for the validity of dual-process theories from various domains. We demonstrate how existing sport psychology findings can be integrated within the dual-process framework. We illustrate how future sport psychology research might benefit from adopting the dual-process framework as a meta-theoretical framework by arguing that the complex interplay between Type 1 and Type 2 processing has to be taken into account in order to gain a more complete understanding of the dynamic nature of attentional processing during sport performance at varying levels of expertise. Finally, we demonstrate that sport psychology applications might benefit from the dual-process perspective as well: dual-process theories are able to predict which behaviors can be more successfully executed when relying on Type 1 processing and which behaviors benefit from Type 2 processing.

Eyetracking im Sport

Die Analyse des Blickverhaltens rückt in den letzten Jahren zunehmend ins sportwissenschaftliche Interesse. Bis jetzt verhindert jedoch das Fehlen einer geeigneten Messtechnik den breiten Einsatz in der Sportpraxis. Daher entwickelt ein Forschungsteam am Institute for Human Centered Engineering HuCE der Berner Fachhochschule zusammen mit dem Institut für Sportwissenschaft ISPW der Universität Bern einen sporttauglichen Eyetracker.

Tanz, Kultur, Sport und Wissenschaft

This essay takes a look back to 13 years of history of the postgraduate programme DanceCulture (TanzKultur) integrated in the Institute of Sport Science of the University of Bern.

Sport Psychology. Theories and Applications for Performance, Health and Humanity.

This congress proceedings volume includes all abstracts submitted to the 14th European Congress of Sport Psychology of the European Federation of Sport Psychology FEPSAC that have been accepted by the scientific evaluation committee. Content: six keynote lectures, Panteleimon ("Paddy") Ekkekakis: Escape from Cognitivism: Exercise as Hedonic Experience; Sergio Lara-Bercial and Cliff Mallett: Serial Winning Coaches – Vision, People and Environment; Kari Fasting: Sexual Harassment and Abuse in Sport – Implications for Sport Psychologists; Claudia Voelcker-Rehage: Benefits of Physical Activity and Fitness for Lifelong Motor and Cognitive Development – Brain and Behaviour; Nancy J. Cooke: Interactive Team Cognition: Focusing on Team Dynamics; Chris Harwood: Doing Sport Psychology? Critical Reflections as a Scientist-Practitioner. Abstracts of 11 invited symposia, 65 submitted symposia, 8 special sessions, and 5 poster sessions.

Development of a diagnostic online tool system for Swiss sport psychology practitioners

Psychological assessment is a central component of applied sport psychology. Despite obvious and well-documented advantages of diagnostic online tools, there is a lack of a system for such tools for sport psychologists so far in Switzerland. Having the most frequently used questionnaires available online in one single tool for all listed Swiss sport psychologists would make the work of practitioners a lot easier and less time consuming. Therefore, the main goal of this project is to develop a diagnostic online tool system with the possibility to make available different questionnaires often used in sport psychology. Furthermore, we intend to survey status and use of this diagnostic online tool system and the questionnaires by Swiss sport psychologists. A specific challenge is to limit the access to qualified sport psychologists and to secure the confidentiality for the client. In particular, approved sport psychologists get an individual code for each of their athletes for the required questionnaire. With the help of this code, athletes can access the test via a secure website at any place of the world. As soon as they complete and submit the online questionnaire, analysed and interpreted data reach the sport psychologist via E-Mail, which is timesaving and easy applicable for the sport psychologist. Furthermore, data are available for interpretation with athletes and documentation of individual development over time is possible. Later on, completed and anonymised questionnaires will be collected and analysed. Bigger number of collected data give more insight in the psychometric properties, thus helping to improve and further develop the questionnaires. In this presentation, we demonstrate the tool and its feasibility using the German version of the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS, Schmid et al., 2010). To conclude, this diagnostic online tool system offers new possibilities for sport psychologists working as practitioner.

Interpersonale Konsequenzen von offenen Selbstgesprächen in Dyaden im Sport

In der sportpsychologischen Forschung werden sowohl offene als auch verdeckte Selbstgespräche mehrheitlich als rein intrapersonale Phänomene betrachtet und sowohl deren Antezedenzien als auch Konsequenzen nur auf die mit sich selbst sprechende Person bezogen untersucht. Erste laborexperimentelle Studien, die die Effekte von offenen Selbstgesprächen auf die Eindrucksbildung (Graf, Lier & Seiler, 2012; Van Raalte, Brewer, Cornelius & Petitpas, 2006) und die individuelle Leistung (Gould & Weiss, 1981) eines Beobachters nachweisen konnten und Aussagen verschiedener Tennisspieler (Rimmer, Greenlees, Graydon, Thelwell & Buscombe, 2008), dass sie die offene Selbstgespräche der Gegner bei der Bildung eines ersten Eindrucks verwenden würden, deuten jedoch auf die Bedeutsamkeit von interpersonalen Konsequenzen von offenen Selbstgesprächen hin. Um das Verständnis für die interpersonalen Konsequenzen von offenen Selbstgesprächen im Sport zu vertiefen, wurden zwei Studien mit unterschiedlicher Methodik durchgeführt. In einer qualitativen Feldstudie wurden mit 13 Badmintonspielern im Anschluss an ihr Badminton Herren-Doppel Selbstkonfrontationsinterviews durchgeführt, um die Wahrnehmungsergebnisse nach offenen, während eines realen Wettkampfes geäusserten Selbstgesprächen zu untersuchen. Die wahrgenommenen positiven, negativen und motivierenden Selbstgespräche führten zu Zuschreibungen von mentalen Zuständen und Kognitionen und vereinzelt zur Einschätzung des episodischen Leistungsvermögens. Weiter lösten die Selbstgespräche verschiedene affektive Reaktionen und Erwartungsreaktionen aus, deren mögliche Konsequenzen für den weiteren Spielverlauf diskutiert werden. Um einzelne Resultate aus dieser ersten Studie eingehender zu analysieren (zugeschriebene Kompetenz und stellvertretende Valenzeinschätzung; Birrer & Seiler, 2008), und zur Untersuchung der Effekte der offenen Selbstgespräche auf die individuelle Leistung eines Teampartners wurde eine zweite, laborexperimentelle Studie durchgeführt. Zur Herstellung der drei experimentellen Bedingungen kam ein gleichgeschlechtlicher Konfident zum Einsatz, der als vermeintlicher Teampartner fungierte und der während der Golf-Putt-Aufgabe als Reaktion auf die eigenen Putts positive, negative oder keine Selbstgespräche führte. Bezogen auf die zugeschriebene Kompetenz zeigte sich kein allgemeiner, sondern ein von der Valenz der Probanden bedingter Effekt der negativen Selbstgespräche: War den Probanden die Aufgabe wichtig, führten negative Selbstgespräche zur Zuschreibung einer tiefen Kompetenz. Weiter lösten sowohl positive als auch negative Selbstgespräche die Einschätzung aus, dass dem Partner die Aufgabe wichtig ist. Keine Effekte hatten die Selbstgespräche auf die individuelle Leistung der Probanden. Explorativ durchgeführte Nachanalysen deuten jedoch darauf hin, dass sich die Selbstgespräche des Partners womöglich nach einer gewissen Zeit auf die individuelle Leistung der wahrnehmenden Person auswirken könnten, weshalb methodische Anpassungen diskutiert werden, mit Hilfe derer der Effekt der Selbstgespräche auf die Leistung gesteigert werden könnte. Neben den hypothesenprüfenden Tests ermittelten verschiedene Post-Hoc-Analysen aufschlussreiche Resulate (z.B. zu affektiven Reaktionen). Die Ergebnisse der beiden Studien bringen klar zum Ausdruck, dass die interpersonale Perspektive bei der Erforschung der Effekte von offenen Selbstgesprächen bedeutsame Erkenntnisse für Theorie und Praxis liefern kann.

The potential of female immigrants' integration into sport by intercultural clubs in Switzerland

Sport participation means a privileged access to participate in the sport system and the opportunities of actual integration into sport (Seiberth et al., 2013). The access to sport activities is often restricted for female immigrants. The function of sport participation concerning exercise offers of social associations is not a common theme in research on migration or on sports-related integration. Research on boundaries (Lamont & Molnár, 2002) suggest that gender-related and ethnic boundaries are stable behavioural and cognitive patterns leading to unequal social opportunities. The present study examined the potential of a Swiss intercultural club regarding female immigrants’ integration into sport by focussing on gender-related and ethnic boundaries. Ten interviews with female immigrants and conductress of an intercultural club plus a group discussion were held. Using qualitative content analysis and documentary method, findings reveal multifaceted, interwoven boundaries, e.g. maternal devotion, exclusive exercise offers for women, language learning devotion, religious need of headscarf. Otherwise resources to overcome boundaries are provided: Deploying competent employees; offering childcare, exercise offers suited to mothers‘ time schedule and language lessons; equitable, on integration focussed club-life. Thus, intercultural clubs might help to overcome boundaries and facilitate access to exercise for female immigrants and integrate them more successfully into sport than many sport clubs. A boundary focus and present data may open new perspectives for sport organisation and integration research. Further investigations of social associations offering exercise are advised.