Macrophomina phaseolina: density and longevity of microsclerotia in soybean root tissues and free on the soil, and competitive saprophytic ability

In field experiments, the density of Macrophomina phaseolina microsclerotia in root tissues of naturally colonized soybean cultivars was quantified. The density of free sclerotia on the soil was determined for plots of crop rotation (soybean-corn) and soybean monoculture soon after soybean harvest. M. phaseolina natural infection was also determined for the roots of weeds grown in the experimental area. To verify the ability of M. phaseolina to colonize dead substrates, senesced stem segments from the main plant species representing the agricultural system of southern Brazil were exposed on naturally infested soil for 30 and 60 days. To quantify the sclerotia, the methodology of Cloud and Rupe (1991) and Mengistu et al. (2007) was employed. Sclerotium density, assessed based on colony forming units (CFU), ranged from 156 to 1,108/g root tissue. Sclerotium longevity, also assessed according to CFU, was 157 days for the rotation and 163 days for the monoculture system. M. phaseolina did not colonize saprophytically any dead stem segment of Avena strigosa,Avena sativa,Hordeum vulgare,Brassica napus,Gossypium hirsutum,Secale cereale,Helianthus annus,Triticosecalerimpaui, and Triticum aestivum. Mp was isolated from infected root tissues of Amaranthus viridis,Bidens pilosa,Cardiospermum halicacabum,Euphorbia heterophylla,Ipomoea sp., and Richardia brasiliensis. The survival mechanisms of M. phaseolina studied in this paper met the microsclerotium longevity in soybean root tissues, free on the soil, as well as asymptomatic colonization of weeds.

In vitro multiplication of Tabernaemontana fuchsiaefolia L. (Apocynaceae)

This study describes a simple and promising for in vitro multiplication of Tabernaemontana fuchsiaefolia, a species abundantly found in southern Brazil utilized for medicinal purposes and as a source of compounds that may be used to develop new synthetic drugs. Apical and hypocotyl explants were cultured in MS medium containing different concentrations of the cytokinins benzylaminopurine (BA) and 6-furfurylaminopurine (kinetin), supplemented with phloroglucinol (1, 3, 5-hydroxybenzene) to stimulate growth and shoot proliferation. Cytokinin added to the culture media positively influenced the micropropagation of T. fuchsiaefolia.and kinetin induced more shoots per explant than BA cytokinin. A favorable effect of phloroglucinol on apical and lateral buds from hypocotyls was also achieved in medium containing no kinetin or in all kinetin concentrations tested. Short pulses of auxin 3-indolebutyric acid (IBA) 5.0 mg/l resulted in satisfactory rooting in apical microcuttings. The addition of phloroglucinol to MS medium induced rhizogenesis in 29% of the nodal segments transferred to MS medium in the absence of IBA and in 50% of the nodal segments transferred to MS medium containing 0.5 mg/l IBA and in nodal segments previously submitted to short pulses of IBA.

Understanding the Racial Nature of Police and Immigrant Relations In Finland. The Case of Africans in Turku

The focus of this study is to examine the role of police and immigrants’ relations, as less is known about this process in the country. The studies were approached in two different ways. Firstly, an attempt was made to examine how immigrants view their encounters with the police. Secondly, the studies explored how aware the police are of immigrants’ experiences in their various encounters and interactions on the street level. An ancillary aim of the studies is to clarify, analyse and discuss how prejudice and stereotypes can be tackled, thereby contributing to the general debate about racism and discrimination for better ethnic relations in the country. The data in which this analysis was based is on a group of adults (n=88) from the total of 120 Africans questioned for the entire study (n=45) police cadets and (n=6) serving police officers from Turku. The present thesis is a compilation of five articles. A summary of each article findings follows, as the same data was used in all five studies. In the first study, a theoretical model was developed to examine the perceived knowledge of bias by immigrants resulting from race, culture and belief. This was also an attempt to explore whether this knowledge was predetermined in my attempt to classify and discuss as well as analyse the factors that may be influencing immigrants’ allegations of unfair treatment by the police in Turku. The main finding shows that in the first paper there was ignorance and naivety on the part of the police in their attitudes towards the African immigrant’s prior experiences with the police, and this may probably have resulted from stereotypes or their lack of experience as well as prior training with immigrants where these kinds of experience are rampant in the country (Egharevba, 2003 and 2004a). In exploring what leads to stereotypes, a working definition is the assumption that is prevalent among some segments of the population, including the police, that Finland is a homogenous country by employing certain conducts and behaviour towards ethnic and immigrant groups in the country. This to my understanding is stereotype. Historically this was true, but today the social topography of the country is changing and becoming even more complex. It is true that, on linguistic grounds, the country is multilingual, as there are a few recognised national minority languages (Swedish, Sami and Russian) as well as a number of immigrant languages including English. Apparently it is vital for the police to have a line of communication open when addressing the problem associated with immigrants in the country. The second paper moved a step further by examining African immigrants’ understanding of human rights as well as what human rights violation means or entails in their views as a result of their experiences with the police, both in Finland and in their country of origin. This approach became essential during the course of the study, especially when the participants were completing the questionnaire (N=88), where volunteers were solicited for a later date for an in-depth interview with the author. Many of the respondents came from countries where human rights are not well protected and seldom discussed publicly, therefore understanding their views on the subject can help to explain why some of the immigrants are sceptical about coming forward to report cases of batteries and assaults to the police, or even their experiences of being monitored in shopping malls in their new home and the reason behind their low level of trust in public authorities in Finland. The study showed that knowledge of human rights is notably low among some of the participants. The study also found that female respondents were less aware of human rights when compared with their male counterparts. This has resulted in some of the male participants focussing more on their traditional ways of thinking by not realising that they are in a new country where there is equality in sexes and lack of respect on gender terms is not condoned. The third paper focussed on the respondents’ experiences with the police in Turku and tried to explore police attitudes towards African immigrant clients, in addition to the role stereotype plays in police views of different cultures and how these views have impacted on immigrants’ views of discriminatory policing in Turku. The data is the same throughout the entire studies (n=88), except that some few participants were interviewed for the third paper thirty-five persons. The results showed that there is some bias in mass-media reports on the immigrants’ issues, due to selective portrayal of biases without much investigation being carried out before jumping to conclusions, especially when the issues at stake involve an immigrant (Egharevba, 2005a; Egharevba, 2004a and 2004b). In this vein, there was an allegation that the police are even biased while investigating cases of theft, especially if the stolen property is owned by an immigrant (Egharevba, 2006a, Egharevba, 2006b). One vital observation from the respondents’ various comments was that race has meaning in their encounters and interaction with the police in the country. This result led the author to conclude that the relation between the police and immigrants is still a challenge, as there is rampant fear and distrust towards the police by some segments of the participating respondents in the study. In the fourth paper the focus was on examining the respondents’ view of the police, with special emphasis on race and culture as well as the respondents’ perspective on police behaviour in Turku. This is because race, as it was relayed to me in the study, is a significant predictor of police perception (Egharevba, 2005a; Egharevba and Hannikianen, 2005). It is a known scientific fact that inter-group racial attitudes are the representation of group competition and perceived threat to power and status (Group-position theory). According to Blumer (1958) a sense of group threat is an essential element for the emergence of racial prejudice. Consequently, it was essential that we explored the existing relationship between the respondents and the police in order to have an understanding of this concept. The result indicates some local and international contextual issues and assumptions that were of importance tackling prejudice and discrimination as it exists within the police in the country. Moreover, we have to also remember that, for years, many of these African immigrants have been on the receiving end of unjust law enforcement in their various countries of origin, which has resulted in many of them feeling inferior and distrustful of the police even in their own country of origin. While discussing the issues of cultural difference and how it affects policing, we must also keep in mind the socio-cultural background of the participants, their level of language proficiency and educational background. The research data analysed in this study also confirmed the difficulties associated with cultural misunderstandings in interpreting issues and how these misunderstandings have affected police and immigrant relations in Finland. Finally, the fifth paper focussed on cadets’ attitudes towards African immigrants as well as serving police officers’ interaction with African clients. Secondly, the police level of awareness of African immigrants’ distrustfulness of their profession was unclear. For this reason, my questions in this fifth study examined the experiences and attitudes of police cadets and serving police officers as well as those of African immigrants in understanding how to improve this relationship in the country. The data was based on (n=88) immigrant participants, (n=45) police cadets and 6 serving police officers from the Turku police department. The result suggests that there is distrust of the police in the respondents’ interaction; this tends to have galvanised a heightened tension resulting from the lack of language proficiency (Egharevba and White, 2007; Egharevba and Hannikainen, 2005, and Egharevba, 2006b) The result also shows that the allegation of immigrants as being belittled by the police stems from the misconceptions of both parties as well as the notion of stop and search by the police in Turku. All these factors were observed to have contributed to the alleged police evasiveness and the lack of regular contact between the respondents and the police in their dealings. In other words, the police have only had job-related contact with many of the participants in the present study. The results also demonstrated the complexities caused by the low level of education among some of the African immigrants in their understanding about the Finnish culture, norms and values in the country. Thus, the framework constructed in these studies embodies diversity in national culture as well as the need for a further research study with a greater number of respondents (both from the police and immigrant/majority groups), in order to explore the different role cultures play in immigrant and majority citizens’ understanding of police work.

Fungi associated to bark lesions of Eucalyptus globulus stems in plantations from Uruguay

Trees with stem bark lesions are frequently observed in Eucalyptus globulus Labill. plantations, particularly in the central west region of Uruguay. These lesions constitute a problem for trunk decortications at harvest and they also facilitate the access of fungi that could cause wood decay. Seven, three and oneyear-old plantations, located at three sites in close proximity were selected. Four types of trunk lesions were present in trees regardless the age of plantation and more than one type was found in each plantation. The aim of this study was to investigate the fungal composition associated with these lesions and compare them to healthy tissues and try to find out the origin of these symptoms. Another purpose was to elucidate the real role of the fungi considered pathogens by means of experimental inoculations. Segments from lesions and healthy tissues yielded 897 fungal isolates belonging to 32 taxa, 681 isolates from bark lesions and 216 from healthy tissues. Both healthy and symptomatic tissues showed similar fungal species composition, but with differences in frequencies of colonization. Cytospora eucalypticola Van der Westhuizen, Botryosphaeria spp., Pestalotiopsis guepinii (Desm.) Stey. and Penicillium spp. were the dominant species isolated. As symptoms were not reproduced after experimental inoculation with Botryosphaeria ribis Grossenb. & Duggar and B. eucalyptorum Crous, & M.J. Wingf, it could be suggested that these lesions were originated by unfavorable environmental conditions. The frost that occurred for several days out of season and flooding may have been involved in the development of bark lesion.

Ultrastructural calli analysis of Inga vera Willd. subsp. Affinis (DC.) T.D. Penn

Subcellular changes are relevant to understand plant organogenesis and embryogenesis in the early stages of cell development. The cytology during cell development in tissue culture is however still poorly characterized. This study aimed to characterize the ultrastructural differences related to callogenesis of anthers, ovaries, leaf and nodal segments of Inga vera Willd. subsp. Affinis (DC.) T.D. Penn. Flower buds, nodal segments and leaves were disinfected and inoculated in test tubes containing MS medium with 3% sucrose and 4.5µM 2.4-D, except for leaf callogenesis, where 9µM of this auxin was used, and for the callogenesis of anthers and ovaries, where the culture medium was enriched with 0.25% activated charcoal and 90µM PVP. After 45 days in culture medium, the anther, ovary, leaf and nodal segment calli were fixed in Karnovisky and prepared for visualization by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Ultrastructural differences were observed among the callus cells of anthers, ovaries, segments and leaves. There was no evidence of somatic embryo formation in the anther, leaf and nodal segment calli, in spite of some embryogenic characteristics in the cells. The ovary calli, with indications of embryo formation, seem to be the most responsive explant source for embryogenesis.

Terrain forms and spatial variability of soil properties in an area cultivatedwith citrus

The technique of precision agriculture and soil-landscape allows delimiting areas for localized management, allowing a localized application of agricultural inputs and thereby may contribute to preservation of natural resources. Therefore, the objective of this work was to characterize the spatial variability of chemical properties and clay content in the context of soil-landscape relationship in a Latosol (Oxisol) under cultivation of citrus. Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0.0-0.2 m in an area of 83.5 ha planted with citrus, as a 50-m intervals grid, with 129 points in concave terrain and 206 points in flat terrain, totaling 335 points. Values for the variables that express the chemical characteristics and clay content of soil properties were analyzed with descriptive statistics and geostatistical modeling of semivariograms for making maps of kriging. The values of range and kriging maps indicated higher variability in the shape of concave topography (top segment) compared with the shape of flat topography (slope and hillside segments below). The identification of different forms of terrain proved to be efficient in understanding the spatial variability of chemical properties and clay content of soil under cultivation of citrus.

Economic optimization method to design telescope irrigation of multiples outlets

In this study is presented an economic optimization method to design telescope irrigation laterals (multidiameter) with regular spaced outlets. The proposed analytical hydraulic solution was validated by means of a pipeline composed of three different diameters. The minimum acquisition cost of the telescope pipeline was determined by an ideal arrangement of lengths and respective diameters for each one of the three segments. The mathematical optimization method based on the Lagrange multipliers provides a strategy for finding the maximum or minimum of a function subject to certain constraints. In this case, the objective function describes the acquisition cost of pipes, and the constraints are determined from hydraulic parameters as length of irrigation laterals and total head loss permitted. The developed analytical solution provides the ideal combination of each pipe segment length and respective diameter, resulting in a decreased of the acquisition cost.

Carcinoma Adenoescamoso primário de fígado

Adenosquamous carcinoma of the liver is a rare type of hepatic tumor first described in 1975. It is characterized by both glandular and squamous compounds. We describe a case of adenosquamous carcinoma of the liver. It was discovered in a 42-yr-old female with a 2-month history of vomiting, weight loss (7 kg). A left hepatic lobectomy disclosed an 11 x 9 x 7,5 cm tumor located at I, II, III, IV segments. This tumor is rare entity and is a variant of cholangiocarcinoma whose etiology and prognostic are not well known.

Optimization as a method of search engine marketing

This study is dedicated to search engine marketing (SEM). It aims for developing a business model of SEM firms and to provide explicit research of trustworthy practices of virtual marketing companies. Optimization is a general term that represents a variety of techniques and methods of the web pages promotion. The research addresses optimization as a business activity, and it explains its role for the online marketing. Additionally, it highlights issues of unethical techniques utilization by marketers which created relatively negative attitude to them on the Internet environment. Literature insight combines in the one place both technical and economical scientific findings in order to highlight technological and business attributes incorporated in SEM activities. Empirical data regarding search marketers was collected via e-mail questionnaires. 4 representatives of SEM companies were engaged in this study to accomplish the business model design. Additionally, the fifth respondent was a representative of the search engine portal, who provided insight on relations between search engines and marketers. Obtained information of the respondents was processed qualitatively. Movement of commercial organizations to the online market increases demand on promotional programs. SEM is the largest part of online marketing, and it is a prerogative of search engines portals. However, skilled users, or marketers, are able to implement long-term marketing programs by utilizing web page optimization techniques, key word consultancy or content optimization to increase web site visibility to search engines and, therefore, user’s attention to the customer pages. SEM firms are related to small knowledge-intensive businesses. On the basis of data analysis the business model was constructed. The SEM model includes generalized constructs, although they represent a wider amount of operational aspects. Constructing blocks of the model includes fundamental parts of SEM commercial activity: value creation, customer, infrastructure and financial segments. Also, approaches were provided on company’s differentiation and competitive advantages evaluation. It is assumed that search marketers should apply further attempts to differentiate own business out of the large number of similar service providing companies. Findings indicate that SEM companies are interested in the increasing their trustworthiness and the reputation building. Future of the search marketing is directly depending on search engines development.

Assessing the Environmental Value of Water Treatment Solutions in the Mining Industry

Environmental accountability has become a major source of competitive advantage for industrial companies, because customers consider it as relevant buying criterion. However, in order to leverage their environmental responsibility, industrial suppliers have to be able to demonstrate the environmental value of their products and services, which is also the aim of Kemira, a global water chemistry company considered in this study. The aim of this thesis is to develop a tool which Kemira can use to assess the environmental value of their solutions for the customer companies in mining industry. This study answers to questions on what kinds of methods to assess environmental impacts exist, and what kind of tool could be used to assess the environmental value of Kemira’s water treatment solutions. The environmental impacts of mining activities vary greatly between different mines. Generally the major impacts include the water related issues and wastes. Energy consumption is also a significant environmental aspect. Water related issues include water consumption and impacts in water quality. There are several methods to assess environmental impacts, for example life cycle assessment, eco-efficiency tools, footprint calculations and process simulation. In addition the corresponding financial value may be estimated utilizing monetary assessment methods. Some of the industrial companies considered in the analysis of industry best practices use environmental and sustainability assessments. Based on the theoretical research and conducted interviews, an Excel based tool utilizing reference data on previous customer cases and customer specific test results was considered to be most suitable to assess the environmental value of Kemira’s solutions. The tool can be used to demonstrate the functionality of Kemira’s solutions in customers’ processes, their impacts in other process parameters and their environmental and financial aspects. In the future, the tool may be applied to fit also Kemira’s other segments, not only mining industry.

Síndrome de estenose pilórica por adenocarcinoma de piloro

We present a case of primary malignant pylorus neoplasia, emphasizing its rarity, the difficulty of diagnosis and the importance of an adequate prepare before the endoscopic procedure. Literature shows that tumors compromising the first, third and fourth segments of duodenum are rare, especially those of the pyloric area, representing only 0.35% of all malignant tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. Adenocarcinoma is the most common histological type, representing 50% of all malignant neoplasias at this site. The most common symptoms are weight loss, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, abdominal mass, sudden changes in intestinal habits and iron deficiency anemia secondary to chronic intestinal hemorrhage. Survival after five years is only 18%. We report a case of a seventy-one year-old male referring early satiety, epigastric pain, retrosternal burning and dyspepsia, with unspecific results in complementary exams, since complete gastric emptying was not achieved. As symptoms worsened, the patient was submitted to laparotomy, with identification of gastric dilation and severe pyloric stenosis, macroscopically suggesting malignancy. The chosen procedure was a subtotal gastrectomy. Adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy were not used. The patient is been followed-up without tumor recurrence so far.

Video assisted resections. Increasing access to minimally invasive liver surgery?

Objective: To evaluate perioperative outcomes, safety and feasibility of video-assisted resection for primary and secondary liver lesions. Methods : From a prospective database, we analyzed the perioperative results (up to 90 days) of 25 consecutive patients undergoing video-assisted resections in the period between June 2007 and June 2013. Results : The mean age was 53.4 years (23-73) and 16 (64%) patients were female. Of the total, 84% were suffering from malignant diseases. We performed 33 resections (1 to 4 nodules per patient). The procedures performed were non-anatomical resections (n = 26), segmentectomy (n = 1), 2/3 bisegmentectomy (n = 1), 6/7 bisegmentectomy (n = 1), left hepatectomy (n = 2) and right hepatectomy (n = 2). The procedures contemplated postero-superior segments in 66.7%, requiring multiple or larger resections. The average operating time was 226 minutes (80-420), and anesthesia time, 360 minutes (200-630). The average size of resected nodes was 3.2 cm (0.8 to 10) and the surgical margins were free in all the analyzed specimens. Eight percent of patients needed blood transfusion and no case was converted to open surgery. The length of stay was 6.5 days (3-16). Postoperative complications occurred in 20% of patients, with no perioperative mortality. Conclusion : The video-assisted liver resection is feasible and safe and should be part of the liver surgeon armamentarium for resection of primary and secondary liver lesions.

Osaamisen johtaminen pk-yrityksen kansainvälisen kasvun elinkaarella

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli osaamisen johtamisen holistinen tarkastelu pk-yrityksen kansainvälisen kasvun elinkaarella. Osaamisen johtamisen malli sisältää osaamisen, tiedon, eriasteiset ja hierarkisesti eritasoiset liittoumat ja verkostot sekä internetin tarjonnan organisaation oppimisen ohella. Pk-yrityksen syntyminen, kasvu kotimarkkinoilla ja kansainvälinen kasvu voivat perustua kansainvälisyyteen. Holistinen kansainvälistyminen voi alkaa mistä funktiosta tai prosessista tahansa ja ulottua eriasteisena muihin funktioihin ja/tai prosesseihin. Kansainvälistyminen ja kansainvälinen toiminta voi katketa kokonaan tai funktioitain ja alkaa uudelleen. Tutkimuksen holistisella mallilla analysoitiin tapausyritykset hyödyntämällä osa-aluekronologiaa. Tuloksilla tarkennettiin mallia. Tarkennettu malli korostaa kasvu ja/tai kansainvälistymisärsykkeen/impulssin syntyvän sekä kotiettä ulkomaisilta kysyntä- ja/tai tarjontamarkkinoilta sekä yrityksen sisä- että ulkopuolelta tai olevan piilevänä omistajayrittäjässä. Holistisuus korostaa mallin kaikissa osissa ennen alkua (pre-start) vaiheen asemaa, päättymätöntä uudistumisprosessia. Osaamisen johtamisessa korostuu proaktiivisuus. Jokainen uudistamisprosessi edellyttää olevan osaamisen vahvistamista, ja organisaation ulkopuolisen osaamis- ja tietopääoman hyödyntämistä. Osaamisen johtaminen sisältää varsinaisen ja laajennetun organisaation yksilöiden, ryhmien ja yksiköiden visio- ja strategiaperusteisen johtamisen. Tämä edellyttää sitouttamista, motivointia ja omaehtoisuuden sekä organisaation sisäisen ja ulkoisen kulttuurietäisyyden hyödyntämistä. Yksilön fokus osaamisen johtamisen näkökulmasta on tehtävään sitoutuminen ja itsensä toteuttaminen. Fokukset ovat proaktiiviisia vaihdellen funktioiden ja prosessien elinkaarilla dynaamisesti. Tutkimus myötävaikuttaa omistajayrittäjän roolin korostamiseen, kasvu- ja kansainvälistymisimpulssin ja ennen alkua (pre start) vaiheen holistisuuden ymmärtämiseen laaja-alaisesti. Kasvu- ja kansainvälistymisimpulsseja/ärsykkeitä ja niistä seuraavia pre start vaiheita/osa-alueita on pk-yrityksen elinkaarella (1+n) kappaletta; (n: 0- oo). Malli myötävaikuttaa ymmärtämään aineettomia osaamis- ja tieto-optioita sekä korostaa transnationalpiirteitä kansainvälistä kasvua vahvistavina.

Customer profitability measurement in a not-for-profit organization

The objective of this study was to find out the factors that affect customer profitability in the not-for-profit case company. The customer profitability was examined in two different segments of the customer base. The effects that price, cost and the amount of services provided have on the profit margin were studied. The distribution of profitability among the customers and the effect of certain characteristics, such as size of the customer measured in services purchased, on the profitability were analyzed. The theoretical framework was built around customer profitability and the use of customer profitability information in a not-for-profit organization. The present use of customer profitability information and the possibilities of using the results of this research in the case company were presented. Quantitative research methods were used in the empirical part of the study. The results indicate that the two customer segments have differences in their buying behaviors which affect the profitability and thus the measures taken to improve the profitability should be considered with the different characteristics of the customers in mind. Finally the limitations of the study were discussed as possible further research topics.

Effects of infection with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts on the intestinal wall and the myenteric plexus of chicken (Gallus gallus)

This paper aims to analyze the effects of the Toxoplasma gondii infection in the intestinal wall and myenteric plexus of chicken (Gallus gallus). Ten 36-day-old chickens were separated into two groups: control and experimental, orally inoculated with oocysts of the T. gondii strain M7741 genotype III. After 60 days the birds were submitted to euthanasia and had their duodenum removed. Part of the intestinal segments was submitted to histological routine, HE staining, PAS histochemical technique, and Alcian Blue. Qualitative analysis of the intestinal wall and comparative measurements among the groups with respect to total wall thickness, muscle tunic, mucosa, and tunica mucosa were carried out. Caliciform cells were quantified. The other part of the intestinal segments was fixed in formol acetic acid and dissected having the tunica mucosa and the tela submucosa removed. Neurons were stained with Giemsa, counted, and measured. Chickens from the experimental group presented diarrhea and inflammatory infiltrates in the tunica mucosa, thickness reduction of all the parameters assessed in the intestinal wall, and an increase of the number of caliciform cells. There was a ~70% reduction regarding the intensity of myenteric neurons; and the remaining cells presented a reduction of ~2.4% of the perikarion and ~40.5% of the nucleus (p<0.05). Chronic infection induced by T. gondii oocysts resulted in intestinal wall atrophy, mucin secretion increase, death and atrophy of chicken myenteric plexus neurons. Death and atrophy of myenteric plexus neurons may be related with the causes of diarrhea observed in chickens with toxoplasmosis.