Prevalence of intestinal parasites in small ruminants and their senstivity to treatments with ethnobotanical remedies in Cholistan, Pakistan

Livestock production contributes substantially to the livelihoods of poor rural farmers in Pakistan; strengthening pastoral communities plays an imperative role in the country’s thrive for poverty alleviation. Intestinal helminths constitute a major threat for pastoral livestock keepers in the whole country because chronic infestation leads to distinct losses in livestock productivity, particularly the growth of young animals. Synthetic anthelmintics have long been considered the only effective way of controlling this problem but high prices, side effects and chemical residues/toxicity problems, or development of resistance, lead to their very limited use in many pastoral systems. Additionally, poor pastoralists in remote areas of Pakistan hardly have access to appropriate anthelmintic drugs, which are also relatively expensive due to the long routes of transportation. The search for new and more sustainable ways of supporting livestock keepers in remote areas has given rise to studies of ethno-botanicals or traditional plant-based remedies to be used in livestock health care. Plant-based remedies are cheap or free of cost, environmentally safe and generally create no problem of drug resistance; they thus might substitute allopathic drugs. Furthermore, these remedies are easily available in remote areas and simple to prepare and/or administer. Cholistan desert is a quite poor region of Pakistan and the majority of its inhabitants are practicing a nomadic life. The region’s total livestock population (1.29 million heads) is almost twice that of the human population. Livestock husbandry is the primordial occupation of the communities and traditionally wealth assessment was based on the number of animals, especially goats and sheep, owned by an individual. Fortunately, about 60% of this desert region is richly endowed with highly adapted grasses, shrubs and trees. This natural flora has a rich heritage of scientifically unexplored botanical pharmacopoeia. Against this background, the present research project that was conducted under the umbrella of the International Center for Development and Decent Work at Kassel University, focused on a development aspect: in the Cholistan desert region it was firstly examined how pastoralists manage their livestock, which major health problems they face for the different animal species, and which of the naturally occurring plants they use for the treatment of animal diseases (Chapter 2). For this purpose, a baseline survey was carried out across five locations in Cholistan, using a structured questionnaire to collect data from 100 livestock farmers (LF) and 20 local healers (LH). Most of LF and LH were illiterate (66%; 70%). On average, LH had larger herds (109 animals) than LF (85 animals) and were more experienced in livestock husbandry and management. On average LF spent about 163 Euro per year on the treatment of their livestock, with a huge variability in expenditures. Eighty-six traditional remedies based on 64 plants belonging to 43 families were used. Capparaceae was the botanical family with the largest number of species used (4), followed by Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae and Zygophyllaceae (3). The plants Capparis decidua (n=55 mentions), Salsola foetida (n=52), Suaeda fruticosa (n=46), Haloxylon salicornicum (n=42) and Haloxylon recurvum (n=39) were said to be most effective against the infestations with gastrointestinal parasites. Aerial parts (43%), leaves (26%), fruits (9%), seeds and seed oils (9%) were the plant parts frequently used for preparation of remedies, while flowers, roots, bulbs and pods were less frequently used (<5%). Common preparations were decoction, jaggery and ball drench; oral drug administration was very common. There was some variation in the doses used for different animal species depending on age, size and physical condition of the animal and severity of the disease. In a second step the regionally most prevalent gastrointestinal parasites of sheep and goats were determined (Chapter 3) in 500 animals per species randomly chosen from pastoral herds across the previously studied five localities. Standard parasitological techniques were applied to identify the parasites in faecal samples manually collected at the rectum. Overall helminth prevalence was 78.1% across the 1000 animals; pure nematode infestations were most prevalent (37.5%), followed by pure trematode (7.9%), pure cestode (2.6%) and pure protozoa infestations (0.8%). Mixed infestations with nematodes and trematodes occurred in 6.4% of all animals, mixed nematode-cestode infestations in 3.8%, and all three groups were found in 19.1% of the sheep and goats. In goats more males (81.1%) than females (77.0%) were infested, the opposite was found in sheep (73.6% males, 79.5% females). Parasites were especially prevalent in suckling goats (85.2%) and sheep (88.5%) and to a lesser extent in young (goats 80.6%, sheep 79.3%) and adult animals (goats 72.8%, sheep 73.8%). Haemonchus contortus, Trichuris ovis and Paramphistomum cervi were the most prevalent helminths. In a third step the in vitro anthelmintic activity of C. decidua, S. foetida, S. fruticosa, H. salicornicum and H. recurvum (Chapter 2) was investigated against adult worms of H. contortus, T. ovis and P. cervi (Chapter 3) via adult motility assay (Chapter 4). Various concentrations ranging from 7.8 to 500 mg dry matter/ml of three types of extracts of each plant, i.e. aqueous, methanol, and aqueous-methanol (30:70), were used at different time intervals to access their anthelmintic activity. Levamisol (0.55 mg/ml) and oxyclozanide (30 mg/ml) served as positive and phosphate-buffered saline as negative control. All extracts exhibited minimum and maximum activity at 2 h and 12 h after parasite exposure; the 500 mg/ml extract concentrations were most effective. Plant species (P<0.05), extract type (P<0.01), parasite species (P<0.01), extract concentration (P<0.01), time of exposure (P<0.01) and their interactions (P<0.01) had significant effects on the number of immobile/dead helminths. From the comparison of LC50 values it appeared that the aqueous extract of C. decidua was more potent against H. contortus and T. ovis, while the aqueous extract of S. foetida was effective against P. cervi. The methanol extracts of H. recurvum were most potent against all three types of parasites, and its aqueous-methanol extract was also very effective against T. ovis and P. cervi. Based on these result it is concluded that the aqueous extract of C. decidua, as well as the methanol and aqueous-methanol extract of H. recurvum have the potential to be developed into plant-based drugs for treatment against H. contortus, T. ovis and P. cervi infestations. Further studies are now needed to investigate the in vivo anthelmintic activity of these plants and plant extracts, respectively, in order to develop effective, cheap and locally available anthelmintics for pastoralists in Cholistan and neighboring desert regions. This will allow developing tangible recommendations for plant-based anthelminthic treatment of sheep and goat herds, and by this enable pastoralists to maintain healthy and productive flocks at low costs and probably even manufacture herbal drugs for marketing on a regional scale.

Sensor-based Control of Chewing and Rumination Behavior of Dairy Cows

The measurement of feed intake, feeding time and rumination time, summarized by the term feeding behavior, are helpful indicators for early recognition of animals which show deviations in their behavior. The overall objective of this work was the development of an early warning system for inadequate feeding rations and digestive and metabolic disorders, which prevention constitutes the basis for health, performance, and reproduction. In a literature review, the current state of the art and the suitability of different measurement tools to determine feeding behavior of ruminants was discussed. Five measurement methods based on different methodological approaches (visual observance, pressure transducer, electrical switches, electrical deformation sensors and acoustic biotelemetry), and three selected measurement techniques (the IGER Behavior Recorder, the Hi-Tag rumination monitoring system and RumiWatchSystem) were described, assessed and compared to each other within this review. In the second study, the new system for measuring feeding behavior of dairy cows was evaluated. The measurement of feeding behavior ensues through electromyography (EMG). For validation, the feeding behavior of 14 cows was determined by both the EMG system and by visual observation. The high correlation coefficients indicate that the current system is a reliable and suitable tool for monitoring the feeding behavior of dairy cows. The aim of a further study was to compare the DairyCheck (DC) system and two additional measurement systems for measuring rumination behavior in relation to efficiency, reliability and reproducibility, with respect to each other. The two additional systems were labeled as the Lely Qwes HR (HR) sensor, and the RumiWatchSystem (RW). Results of accordance of RW and DC to each other were high. The last study examined whether rumination time (RT) is affected by the onset of calving and if it might be a useful indicator for the prediction of imminent birth. Data analysis referred to the final 72h before the onset of calving, which were divided into twelve 6h-blocks. The results showed that RT was significantly reduced in the final 6h before imminent birth.

Optimization of Processing Technology for Commercial Drying of Bananas (Matooke)

Summary - Cooking banana is one of the most important crops in Uganda; it is a staple food and source of household income in rural areas. The most common cooking banana is locally called matooke, a Musa sp triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB). It is perishable and traded in fresh form leading to very high postharvest losses (22-45%). This is attributed to: non-uniform level of harvest maturity, poor handling, bulk transportation and lack of value addition/processing technologies, which are currently the main challenges for trade and export, and diversified utilization of matooke. Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in processing of agricultural produce. A lot of research has been carried out on drying of fruits and vegetables, but little information is available on matooke. Drying of matooke and milling it to flour extends its shelf-life is an important means to overcome the above challenges. Raw matooke flour is a generic flour developed to improve shelf stability of the fruit and to find alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85%db) and subsequently has a high potential as a calorie resource base. It possesses good properties for both food and non-food industrial use. Some effort has been done to commercialize the processing of matooke but there is still limited information on its processing into flour. It was imperative to carry out an in-depth study to bridge the following gaps: lack of accurate information on the maturity window within which matooke for processing into flour can be harvested leading to non-uniform quality of matooke flour; there is no information on moisture sorption isotherm for matooke from which the minimum equilibrium moisture content in relation to temperature and relative humidity is obtainable, below which the dry matooke would be microbiologically shelf-stable; and lack of information on drying behavior of matooke and standardized processing parameters for matooke in relation to physicochemical properties of the flour. The main objective of the study was to establish the optimum harvest maturity window and optimize the processing parameters for obtaining standardized microbiologically shelf-stable matooke flour with good starch quality attributes. This research was designed to: i) establish the optimum maturity harvest window within which matooke can be harvested to produce a consistent quality of matooke flour, ii) establish the sorption isotherms for matooke, iii) establish the effect of process parameters on drying characteristics of matooke, iv) optimize the drying process parameters for matooke, v) validate the models of maturity and optimum process parameters and vi) standardize process parameters for commercial processing of matooke. Samples were obtained from a banana plantation at Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID), Technology Business Incubation Center (TBI) at Nyaruzunga – Bushenyi in Western Uganda. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in selecting the banana stools from which samples for the experiments were picked. The cultivar Mbwazirume which is soft cooking and commonly grown in Bushenyi was selected for the study. The static gravitation method recommended by COST 90 Project (Wolf et al., 1985), was used for determination of moisture sorption isotherms. A research dryer developed for this research. All experiments were carried out in laboratories at TBI. The physiological maturity of matooke cv. mbwazirume at Bushenyi is 21 weeks. The optimum harvest maturity window for commercial processing of matooke flour (Raw Tooke Flour - RTF) at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks. The finger weight model is recommended for farmers to estimate harvest maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and pulp peel ratio is recommended for commercial processors. Matooke isotherms exhibited type II curve behavior which is characteristic of foodstuffs. The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms. For commercial processing of matooke, in order to obtain a microbiologically shelf-stable dry product. It is recommended to dry it to moisture content below or equal to 10% (wb). The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms for matooke. The isoteric heat of sorption for both adsorptions and desorption isotherms increased with decreased moisture content. The total isosteric heat of sorption for matooke: adsorption isotherm ranged from 4,586 – 2,386 kJ/kg and desorption isotherm from 18,194– 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 – 0.01 (db) respectively. The minimum energy required for drying matooke from 80 – 10% (wb) is 8,124 kJ/kg of water removed. Implying that the minimum energy required for drying of 1 kg of fresh matooke from 80 - 10% (wb) is 5,793 kJ. The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and the two falling rate periods. The drying rate constant for all processing parameters ranged from 5,793 kJ and effective diffusivity ranged from 1.5E-10 - 8.27E-10 m2/s. The activation energy (Ea) for matooke was 16.3kJ/mol (1,605 kJ/kg). Comparing the activation energy (Ea) with the net isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm (qst) (1,297.62) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter), indicated that Ea was higher than qst suggesting that moisture molecules travel in liquid form in matooke slices. The total color difference (ΔE*) between the fresh and dry samples, was lowest for effect of thickness of 7 mm, followed by air velocity of 6 m/s, and then drying air temperature at 70˚C. The drying system controlled by set surface product temperature, reduced the drying time by 50% compared to that of a drying system controlled by set air drying temperature. The processing parameters did not have a significant effect on physicochemical and quality attributes, suggesting that any drying air temperature can be used in the initial stages of drying as long as the product temperature does not exceed gelatinization temperature of matooke (72˚C). The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of matooke are: thickness = 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode. From practical point of view it is recommended that for commercial processing of matooke, to employ multi-layer drying of loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m², thickness 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode.

Optimization in the Technological Steps for the Fabrication of Large Area Micromirror Arrays

Micromirror arrays are a very strong candidate for future energy saving applications. Within this work, the fabrication process for these micromirror arrays has been optimized and some steps for the large area fabrication of micromirror modules were performed. At first the surface roughness of the insulation layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) was investigated. This SiO2 thin layer was deposited on three different type of substrates i.e. silicon, glass and Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) substrates. The deposition techniques which has been used are Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) and Ion Beam Sputter Deposition (IBSD). The thickness of the SiO2 thin layer was kept constant at 150nm for each deposition process. The surface roughness was measured by Stylus Profilometry and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). It was found that the layer which was deposited by IBSD has got the minimum surface roughness value and the layer which was deposited by PECVD process has the highest surface roughness value. During the same investigation, the substrate temperature of PECVD was varied from 80° C to 300° C with the step size of 40° C and it was found that the surface roughness keeps on increasing as the substrate holder temperature increases in the PECVD process. A new insulation layer system was proposed to minimize the dielectric breakdown effect in insulation layer for micromirror arrays. The conventional bilayer system was replaced by five layer system but the total thickness of insulation layer remains the same. It was found that during the actuation of micromirror arrays structure, the dielectric breakdown effect was reduced considerably as compared to the bilayer system. In the second step the fabrication process of the micromirror arrays was successfully adapted and transferred from glass substrates to the flexible PEN substrates by optimizing the conventional process recipe. In the last section, a large module of micromirror arrays was fabricated by electrically interconnecting four 10cm×10cm micromirror modules on a glass pane having dimensions of 21cm×21cm.

Dairy farms typology and management of animal genetic resources in the peri-urban zone of Bamako (Mali)

Facing growth in demand, dairy production in peri-urban areas of developing countries is changing rapidly. To characterise this development around Bamako (Mali), this study establishes a typology of dairy production systems with a special focus on animal genetic resources. The survey included 52 dairy cattle farms from six peri-urban sites. It was conducted in 2011 through two visits, in the dry and harvest seasons. The median cattle number per farm was 17 (range 5-118) and 42% of farmers owned cropland (8.3 +/- 7.3 ha, minimum 1 ha, maximum 25 ha). Feeding strategy was a crucial variable in farm characterisation, accounting for about 85% of total expenses. The use of artificial insemination and a regular veterinary follow-up were other important parameters. According to breeders’ answers, thirty genetic profiles were identified, from local purebreds to different levels of crossbreds. Purebred animals raised were Fulani Zebu (45.8%), Maure Zebu (9.2%), Holstein (3.0%), Azawak Zebu (1.3%), Mere Zebu (0.5%) and Kuri taurine (0.1%). Holstein crossbred represented 30.5% of the total number of animals (19.0% Fulani-Holstein, 11.2% Maure-Holstein and 0.3% Kuri-Holstein). Montbéliarde, Normande and Limousin crossbreds were also found (6.6%, 0.7% and 0.3%, respectively). A multivariate analysis helped disaggregate the diversity of management practices. The high diversity of situations shows the need for consideration of typological characteristics for an appropriate intervention. Although strongly anchored on local breeds, the peri-urban dairy systems included a diversity of exotic cattle, showing an uncoordinated quest of breeders for innovation. Without a public intervention, this dynamic will result in an irremediable erosion of indigenous animal genetic resources.

Atomistic-continuum modeling of ultrafast laser-induced melting of silicon targets

In this work, we present an atomistic-continuum model for simulations of ultrafast laser-induced melting processes in semiconductors on the example of silicon. The kinetics of transient non-equilibrium phase transition mechanisms is addressed with MD method on the atomic level, whereas the laser light absorption, strong generated electron-phonon nonequilibrium, fast heat conduction, and photo-excited free carrier diffusion are accounted for with a continuum TTM-like model (called nTTM). First, we independently consider the applications of nTTM and MD for the description of silicon, and then construct the combined MD-nTTM model. Its development and thorough testing is followed by a comprehensive computational study of fast nonequilibrium processes induced in silicon by an ultrashort laser irradiation. The new model allowed to investigate the effect of laser-induced pressure and temperature of the lattice on the melting kinetics. Two competing melting mechanisms, heterogeneous and homogeneous, were identified in our big-scale simulations. Apart from the classical heterogeneous melting mechanism, the nucleation of the liquid phase homogeneously inside the material significantly contributes to the melting process. The simulations showed, that due to the open diamond structure of the crystal, the laser-generated internal compressive stresses reduce the crystal stability against the homogeneous melting. Consequently, the latter can take a massive character within several picoseconds upon the laser heating. Due to the large negative volume of melting of silicon, the material contracts upon the phase transition, relaxes the compressive stresses, and the subsequent melting proceeds heterogeneously until the excess of thermal energy is consumed. A series of simulations for a range of absorbed fluences allowed us to find the threshold fluence value at which homogeneous liquid nucleation starts contributing to the classical heterogeneous propagation of the solid-liquid interface. A series of simulations for a range of the material thicknesses showed that the sample width we chosen in our simulations (800 nm) corresponds to a thick sample. Additionally, in order to support the main conclusions, the results were verified for a different interatomic potential. Possible improvements of the model to account for nonthermal effects are discussed and certain restrictions on the suitable interatomic potentials are found. As a first step towards the inclusion of these effects into MD-nTTM, we performed nanometer-scale MD simulations with a new interatomic potential, designed to reproduce ab initio calculations at the laser-induced electronic temperature of 18946 K. The simulations demonstrated that, similarly to thermal melting, nonthermal phase transition occurs through nucleation. A series of simulations showed that higher (lower) initial pressure reinforces (hinders) the creation and the growth of nonthermal liquid nuclei. For the example of Si, the laser melting kinetics of semiconductors was found to be noticeably different from that of metals with a face-centered cubic crystal structure. The results of this study, therefore, have important implications for interpretation of experimental data on the kinetics of melting process of semiconductors.

Plasmodium falciparum Rosetting Epitopes Converge in the SD3-Loop of PfEMP1-DBL1α

The ability of Plasmodium falciparum parasitized RBC (pRBC) to form rosettes with normal RBC is linked to the virulence of the parasite and RBC polymorphisms that weaken rosetting confer protection against severe malaria. The adhesin PfEMP1 mediates the binding and specific antibodies prevent sequestration in the micro-vasculature, as seen in animal models. Here we demonstrate that epitopes targeted by rosette disrupting antibodies converge in the loop of subdomain 3 (SD3) which connects the h6 and h7 α-helices of PfEMP1-DBL1α. Both monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal IgG, that bound to epitopes in the SD3-loop, stained the surface of pRBC, disrupted rosettes and blocked direct binding of recombinant NTS-DBL1α to RBC. Depletion of polyclonal IgG raised to NTS-DBL1α on a SD3 loop-peptide removed the anti-rosetting activity. Immunizations with recombinant subdomain 1 (SD1), subdomain 2 (SD2) or SD3 all generated antibodies reacting with the pRBC-surface but only the sera of animals immunized with SD3 disrupted rosettes. SD3-sequences were found to segregate phylogenetically into two groups (A/B). Group A included rosetting sequences that were associated with two cysteine-residues present in the SD2-domain while group B included those with three or more cysteines. Our results suggest that the SD3 loop of PfEMP1-DBL1α is an important target of anti-rosetting activity, clarifying the molecular basis of the development of variant-specific rosette disrupting antibodies.

Effect of supplementation with MgCO3 and L-tryptophan on the welfare and on the carcass and meat quality of two halothane pig genotypes (NN and nn)

Sixty-one animals with different Halothane genes (homozygous halothane positive, n=34; and homozygous halothane negative, n=27) were fed with three diets (controlgroup, with no supplement; magnesium (Mg) group with 1.28g MgCO3/kg and tryptophan (Trp) group with 5g L-Trp/kg) during the last 5 days before slaughter. Animals were submitted to minimal stress ante mortem conditions. Pig behaviour was recorded at the experimental farm, raceway to the CO2 stunning system and during the stunning period. Corneal reflexes were recorded after stunning as well. There were no differences in feed intake among diets (p>0.05) during the 5 days of treatment. The halothane positive (nn) group had lower intake than the halothane negative (NN) group (p<0.01). The behaviour of the pigs in the raceway did not differ (p>0.05) among treatments or halothane genotype. A significant (p<0.001) interaction diet*halothane was found in the time to appear the first retreat attempt during the exposure to the CO2 system. In the nn group, the time of performing the first retreat attempt was later in the Mg (p<0.05) than the Control group. Moreover, in the Mg group, the nn had a later (p<0.05) first retreat attempt than the NN. Thus, Mg supplementation could have a positive effect on welfare of nn pigs. The nn had a lower proportion of animals that showed corneal reflexes after stunning than NN, indicating a higher effectiveness of the stunning method in nn pigs. Neither Mg nor Trp affected carcass quality and meat quality parameters, although significant differences were found between genotypes

Revaloració de la fracció cel·lular de la sang de porc procedent d'escorxadors industrials

La sang de porc és un subproducte comestible que es genera als escorxadors industrials durant el procés d'obtenció de la canal. Aquest subproducte es caracteritza per presentar una elevada càrrega contaminant i, degut a l'elevat volum que es genera, és necessari trobar estratègies que permetin la seva revaloració i aprofitament, a la vegada que disminuïm la contaminació ambiental i les despeses que es deriven del seu processament abans de l'abocament. La fracció cel·lular (FC) constitueix el 40 % de la sang de porc i conté principalment l'hemoglobina (Hb), que representa al voltant del 90 % del contingut en proteïna d'aquesta fracció (un 35 % aproximadament). L'elevat percentatge en proteïna i en ferro, i les seves bones propietats funcionals fan que l'aprofitament d'aquest subproducte com a primera matèria o ingredient de la indústria alimentària sigui una alternativa molt útil a l'hora de reduir les despeses de la indústria càrnia, sempre que es resolguin els problemes de l'enfosquiment i dels sabors estranys que pot conferir la FC quan s'addiciona a productes alimentaris. Una altra possible utilització de la FC és aprofitar les propietats colorants de l'Hb o del grup hemo, com a colorant d'origen natural en diversos productes alimentaris. Els objectius del present treball eren, en primer lloc, determinar les millors condicions d'aplicació del procés de conservació de la FC mitjançant la deshidratació per atomització i caracteritzar físico-químicament i microbiològica el concentrat d'Hb en pols. En segon lloc, avaluar l'eficàcia de diferents additius antioxidants i/o segrestants del ferro per prevenir l'enfosquiment que pateix la FC durant la deshidratació. En tercer lloc, aplicar tractaments d'altes pressions hidrostàtiques com a procés d'higienització i avaluar els efectes d'aquest tractament sobre la microbiota contaminant, el color i les propietats funcionals de la FC. Finalment, desenvolupar un procés d'obtenció d'hidrolitzats proteics descolorats a partir de l'Hb amb la finalitat d'utilitzar-los com a ingredients nutricionals i/o funcionals. La millor temperatura de deshidratació per atomització de la FC hemolitzada era 140ºC. La FC en pols presentava un contingut en humitat del 5,3 % i un percentatge de solubilitat proteica del 96 %. La deshidratació per atomització induïa canvis en l'estructura nativa de l'Hb i, per tant, un cert grau de desnaturalització que pot conduir a una disminució de les seves propietats funcionals. L'extracte sec de la FC en pols estava composat per un 94,6 % de proteïna, un 3 % de sals minerals i un 0,7 % de greix. Els valors CIE L*a*b* del color de la FC en pols eren força constants i reflectien el color vermell marró fosc d'aquesta, a causa de l'oxidació del ferro hèmic que es produeix durant la deshidratació. La càrrega contaminant de la FC fresca de la sang de porc era força elevada i el tractament d'hemòlisi amb ultrasons i la centrifugació posterior no produïen una reducció significativa de la microbiota contaminant, obtenint un producte amb uns recomptes microbiològics de l'ordre de 106 ufc·mL-1. La deshidratació per atomització produïa una disminució d'una unitat logarítmica dels recomptes totals de la FC hemolitzada. Tanmateix, el producte en pols encara reflectia l'elevada contaminació de la primera matèria, fet que condiciona negativament la seva utilització com a ingredient alimentari, a no ser que es millorin les condicions de recollida de la sang a l'escorxador o que aquesta o la FC es sotmeti a algun tractament d'higienització prèviament a la deshidratació. Les isotermes de sorció a 20ºC de la FC en pols tenien forma sigmoïdal i una histèresi estreta i llarga. L'equació GAB és un bon model matemàtic per ajustar les dades de sorció obtingudes experimentalment i determinar la isoterma d'adsorció de la FC deshidratada per atomització. El percentatge d'humitat de la FC deshidratada a 140ºC es corresponia a un valor d'aw a 20 ºC d'aproximadament el 0,16. Tenint en compte que estava per sota dels valors d'aw corresponents a la capa monomolecular, es pot garantir la conservació a temperatura ambient del producte, sempre que s'envasi en recipients tancats que no permetin l'entrada d'humitat de l'exterior. De l'estudi de la possible estabilització del color de la FC deshidratada per atomització mitjançant l'addició d'antioxidants i/o segrestants de ferro, es va observar que només l'àcid ascòrbic, la glucosa, l'àcid nicotínic i la nicotinamida, tenien efectes positius sobre el color del producte en pols. L'ascòrbic i la glucosa no milloraven la conservació del color de l'Hb però disminuïen l'enfosquiment que es produeix durant la deshidratació, amb la qual cosa es pot obtenir un producte en pols de color marró més clar. L'addició de dextrina o L-cisteïna no disminuïa l'enfosquiment ni evitava el canvi de color de l'Hb. L'àcid nicotínic i la nicotinamida protegien el color de l'Hb durant el procés de deshidratació i l'emmagatzematge de la FC en pols. Les millors condicions d'aplicació del tractament amb altes pressions hidrostàtiques (HHP) sobre la FC eren 400 MPa, a 20ºC, durant 15 minuts, perquè produïen una millora significativa de la qualitat microbiològica, no afectaven negativament al color, no comprometien gaire la solubilitat proteica l'Hb i, malgrat que produïen un augment de la viscositat, la FC romania fluida després del tractament. Aquest tractament permetia una reducció de la microbiota contaminant de la FC d'entre 2 i 3 unitats logarítmiques. L'aplicació de l'alta pressió i la posterior deshidratació per atomització permetien obtenir un producte en pols amb recomptes totals de l'ordre de 2,8 unitats logarítmiques. El color de la FC pressuritzada en pols era igual que el de la FC control deshidratada, perquè ambdues mostres presentaven la mateixa susceptibilitat a l'oxidació del grup hemo produïda per la deshidratació. L'alta pressió incrementava la susceptibilitat de l'Hb als efectes desnaturalitzants de la deshidratació, fonamentalment a pH 7 (PIE), ja que es va observar una disminució de la solubilitat proteica a pH neutre després dels 2 processos tecnològics. La FC en pols presentava una màxima capacitat escumant al PIE de l'Hb. L'aplicació del tractament HHP produïa una disminució de la capacitat escumant de la FC en pols, però no tenia efectes negatius sobre l'estabilitat de l'escuma formada. Tampoc es van observar efectes negatius del tractament HHP sobre l'activitat emulsionant de l'Hb. La màxima activitat emulsionant de l'Hb s'aconseguia amb una concentració de FC en pols de l'1,5 % a pH 7 i de l'1 % a pH 4,5. Les pastes obtingudes per escalfament de la FC presentaven característiques molt diferenciades depenent del pH. A pH neutre es formaven unes pastes dures i consistents, mentre que a pH àcid les pastes eren poc consistents, molt adhesives i més elàstiques que les anteriors. Aquestes tenien una capacitat de retenció d'aigua molt superior que les de pH 7, en les quals l'aigua quedava retinguda per capil·laritat. La textura i capacitat de retenció d'aigua de les pastes tampoc eren afectades pel tractament HHP. El tractament HHP incrementava l'activitat de la Tripsina sobre l'Hb quan el substrat i l'enzim es tractaven conjuntament i afavoria el procés d'obtenció d'hidrolitzats descolorats a partir de la FC, la qual cosa permetia assolir el mateix grau de descoloració amb una dosi d'enzim inferior. El tractament d'hidròlisi de la FC amb la utilització combinada de Tripsina seguida d'un tractament amb Pepsina permetia l'obtenció d'un hidrolitzat proteic d'Hb descolorat i hidrolitzava completament la globina, donant lloc a 2 pèptids de 10,8 i 7,4 KDa. Val a dir que també produïa un 60 80 % de nitrogen soluble en TCA, constituït fonamentalment per pèptids petits i aminoàcids lliures. Els hidrolitzats trípsics i pèpsics d'Hb, obtinguts a partir de FC no pressuritzada i deshidratats per atomització a 180ºC, eren de color blanc i tenien un contingut en humitat del 4,7 %, un 84,2 % de proteïna i 9,7 % de sals minerals. El procés d'hidròlisi permetia una reducció considerable de la contaminació de la FC, obtenint un producte en pols amb uns recomptes totals de l'ordre de 102-103 ufc·g-1. Pel que fa a la funcionalitat dels hidrolitzats d'Hb deshidratats per atomització, aquests presentaven una elevada solubilitat proteica a pH 5 i 7 i romanien solubles després d'un escalfament a 80ºC durant 30 min. Tanmateix, aquesta hidròlisi afectava molt negativament la capacitat de mantenir escumes estables i l'activitat emulsionant.

Comparison of video and toy reinforcers to motivate infants/toddlers for hearing tests

This paper is a study of the effectiveness between video and toy reinforcer types to motivate infants/toddlers for hearing tests. No significant differences were found between age groups or gender. Toy reinforcers were found to produce on average two more threshold estimates compared to video reinforcers. Variety, color and animation of animals may have contributed to this difference.

Variability in clear-sky longwave radiative cooling of the atmosphere

The longwave radiative cooling of the clear-sky atmosphere (Q(LWc)) is a crucial component of the global hydrological cycle and is composed of the clear-sky outgoing longwave radiation to space (OLRc) and the net downward minus upward clear-sky longwave radiation to the surface (SNLc). Estimates of QLWc from reanalyses and observations are presented for the period 1979-2004. Compared to other reanalyses data sets, the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts 40-year reanalysis (ERA40) produces the largest Q(LWc) over the tropical oceans (217 W m(-2)), explained by the least negative SNLc. On the basis of comparisons with data derived from satellite measurements, ERA40 provides the most realistic QLWc climatology over the tropical oceans but exhibits a spurious interannual variability for column integrated water vapor (CWV) and SNLc. Interannual monthly anomalies of QLWc are broadly consistent between data sets with large increases during the warm El Nino events. Since relative humidity ( RH) errors applying throughout the troposphere result in compensating effects on the cooling to space and to the surface, they exert only a marginal effect on QLWc. An observed increase in CWV with surface temperature of 3 kg m(-2) K-1 over the tropical oceans is important in explaining a positive relationship between QLWc and surface temperature, in particular over ascending regimes; over tropical ocean descending regions this relationship ranges from 3.6 to 4.6 +/- 0.4 W m(-2) K-1 for the data sets considered, consistent with idealized sensitivity tests in which tropospheric warming is applied and RH is held constant and implying an increase in precipitation with warming.

Diagnostic analysis of atmospheric moisture and clear-sky radiative feedback in the Hadley Centre and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) climate models

The interannual variability of the hydrological cycle is diagnosed from the Hadley Centre and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) climate models, both of which are forced by observed sea surface temperatures. The models produce a similar sensitivity of clear-sky outgoing longwave radiation to surface temperature of ∼2 W m−2 K−1, indicating a consistent and positive clear-sky radiative feedback. However, differences between changes in the temperature lapse-rate and the height dependence of moisture fluctuations suggest that contrasting mechanisms bring about this result. The GFDL model appears to give a weaker water vapor feedback (i.e., changes in specific humidity). This is counteracted by a smaller upper tropospheric temperature response to surface warming, which implies a compensating positive lapse-rate feedback.

Mass and size distribution measurement of particulates from a gas turbine combustor using modern mobility analyzer and particle sizer

SMPS and DMS500 analysers were used to measure particulate size distributions in the exhaust of a fully annular aero gas turbine engine at two operating conditions to compare and analyse sources of discrepancy. A number of different dilution ratio values were utilised for the comparative analysis, and a Dekati hot diluter operating at a temperature of 623°K was also utilised to remove volatile PM prior to measurements being made. Additional work focused on observing the effect of varying the sample line temperatures to ascertain the impact. Explanations are offered for most of the trends observed, although a new, repeatable event identified in the range from 417°K to 423°K – where there was a three order of magnitude increase in the nucleation mode of the sample – requires further study.

Fate of prions in soil: Longevity and migration of recPrP in soil columns

Research into transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) diseases has become a high priority worldwide in recent years yet remarkably little is known about the behaviour of TSE infectivity in the environment. The resilience and stability of prion proteins could lead to soils becoming a potential reservoir of TSE infectivity as a result of contamination from activities such as infected carcass burial or the dispersion of effluents from slaughter houses, or by contamination of pastures by infected animals, (e.g. scrapie in sheep). Knowledge of the fate of prion proteins in soils, and associated physico-chemical conditions which favour migration, can be used to help prevent re-infection of animals through grazing, to protect watercourses and develop good management practices. In two consecutive experiments of 9 and 6 months, the migration of recombinant ovine PrP (recPrP) in soil columns was followed under contrasting levels of microbial activity (normal versus reduced), under varying regimes of soil water content and redox potential, and in two different soil types (loamy sand and clay loam). At each analysis time (1, 3, 6 or 9 months), in both soil types, full-length recPrP was detected in the original contaminated layer, indicating the resilience and stability of recPrP under varied soil conditions, even in the presence of active soil microbial populations. Evidence of protein migration was found in every soil column at the earliest analysis time (1 or 3 months), but was restricted to a maximum distance of 1 cm, indicative of limited initial mobility in soils followed by strong adsorption over the following days to weeks. The survival of recPrP in the soil over a period of at least 9 months was demonstrated. In this study, recPrP was used as an indicator for potential TSE infectivity, although infectivity tests should be carried out before conclusions can be drawn regarding the infection risk posed by prions in soil. However, it has been demonstrated that soil is likely to act as a significant barrier to the dispersion of contaminated material at storage or burial sites. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Quantitative analysis of remote gas temperatures and concentrations from their infrared emission spectra

Techniques for obtaining quantitative values of the temperatures and concentrations of remote hot gaseous effluents from their measured passive emission spectra have been examined in laboratory experiments and on field trials. These emission spectra were obtained using an adapted FTIR spectrometer with 0.25 cm-1 spectral resolution. The CO2 and H2O vapour content in the plume from a 55 m smoke stack and the temperature of these gases were obtained by comparing the measured emission spectra with those modelled using the HITRAN atmospheric transmission database. The spatial distributions of CO2, CO and unburnt CH4 in a laboratory methane flame were reconstructed tomographically using a matrix inversion technique.