Paikan ja tilan paradigmat osaksi suomalaista historiantutkimusta

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El simbolismo fónico de los verbos expresivos en la novela finlandesa Juoksuhaudantie y su traducción al español

Tämän pro gradu -tutkielman aiheena on suomen äänteellisesti motivoituneiden verbien kääntäminen espanjan kielelle. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Kari Hotakaisen (2006) Juoksuhaudantie-romaanissa esiintyviä deskriptiivisiä ja onomatopoeettisia verbejä sekä niiden käännösvastineita Ursula Ojasen ja Rafael García Anguitan (2007) espanjankielelle kääntämässä romaanissa Camino de trincheras. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää, onko suomen ekspressiiviverbien äännesymboliikkaa mahdollista ilmaista espanjan kielellä, saavutetaanko käännöksessä semanttinen ekvivalenssi, millaisia tekniikoita kääntämisessä on sovellettu ja onnistutaanko käännöksessä säilyttämään ekspressiiviverbeille ominainen tyyli. Tutkimuksessa vertaillaan suomen ja espanjan äänteellisesti motivoitunutta sanastoa sekä tutkitaan espanjalle ominaisia tapoja ilmaista ekspressiivisyyttä. Käännösvastineiden analyysissa käytetään sanaluokkavaihdon metodia (Inose: 2009) sekä Snell-Hornbyn (1983) mallia ekspressiiviverbien merkityssisällön kääntämisestä. Aineiston verbit jaetaan semanttisiin luokkiin ja niiden käännösvastineita analysoidaan valittujen tekniikoiden avulla. Vain harvoissa tapauksissa käännöksistä äännesymboliikka on pystytty säilyttämään, mutta verbien merkityssisältö on onnistuttu kääntämään kohdekielelle. Käännöksissä verbiluokka säilyy, ja noin puoleen käännösvastineista on liitetty muiden sanaluokkien rakenteita. Suurin osa käännösvastineista on semanttisesti neutraaleja, onomatopoeettisia käännöksiä on vähän. Kohdetekstissä käytetyt fraseologiset yksiköt ja arvottavat jälkiliitteet antavat käännökselle ekspressiivisen sävyn. Suomessa ekspressiivistä tyyliä ilmaistaan äänteellisesti motivoituneilla sanoilla. Espanjassa ekspressiivisyys ei perustu niinkään äännesymboliikkaan vaan esimerkiksi fraseologisten rakenteiden ja arvottavien jälkiliitteiden käyttöön. Suomen ekspressiivisanojen kääntämisessä tulisi käyttää kohdekielelle ominaisia, tyyliltään samanakaltaisia vastineita.

Defending behavior in bullying situations

In order to encourage children and adolescents to defend and support their victimized peers, it is important to identify factors that either maximize or minimize the probability that students will engage in such behaviors. This thesis is composed of four studies designed to elucidate how a variety of factors work in conjunction to explain why some children defend their victimized classmates, whereas others remain passive or reinforce the bully. The conceptual framework of this thesis is drawn from several theoretical considerations, including social cognitive learning theory, the expectancy-value framework as well as the literature emphasizing the importance of empathy in motivating behaviors. Also the child-by-environment perspective and the socialecological perspective influenced this research. Accordingly, several intra- and interpersonal characteristics (e.g., social cognitions, empathy, and social status) as well as group-level factors (e.g., norms) that may either enhance or reduce the probability that students defend their victimized peers are investigated. In Studies I and II, the focus is on social cognitions, and special attention is paid to take into account the domain-specificity of cognition-behavior processes. Self-efficacy for defending is still an interest of study III, but the role of affective empathy on defending is also investigated. Also social status variables (preference and perceived popularity) are evaluated as possible moderators of links between intrapersonal factors and defending. In Study IV, the focus is expanded further by concentrating on characteristics of children’s proximal environments (i.e., classroom). Bullying norms and collective perceptions (i.e., connectedness among the students and the teachers’ ability to deal with bullying situations) are examined. Data are drawn from two research projects: the Kaarina Cohort Study (consisting of fourth and eighth graders) and the randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluating the effects of the KiVa antibullying program (consisting of third to fifth graders). The results of the thesis suggest that defending the victims of bullying is influenced by a variety of individual level motivational characteristics, such as social cognitions and affective empathy. Also, both perceived popularity and social preference play a role in defending, and the findings support the conceptualization that behavior results from the interplay between the characteristics of an individual child and their social-relational environment. Classroom context further influences students’ defending behavior. Thus, antibullying efforts targeting peer bystanders should aim to influence intra- and interpersonal characteristics of children and adolescents as well as their social environment.

Hezbollah and Taliban - hybrid adversaries in contemporary conflicts? : views on an adversary from the United States Armed Forces perspective

The experiences of the United States Armed Forces of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and Israel Defense Forces in the Second Lebanon War resulted a new term to surface called “hybrid warfare”. It was to describe the complexity of today’s battlefield. The term “hy-brid warfare” was never officially defined nor is it today. The updated version of the US ARMY Field Manual 3-0: Operations (Change 1) from February 22, 2011, introduced and defined “hybrid threat” and thus opened the discussion for hybrid adversary. In this thesis a model is introduced according to which any organization, group or an ad-versary can be examined and evaluated to see whether it qualifies as a hybrid adversary. It is demonstrated by the example of Hezbollah, which is recognized as the best example of an organization utilizing “hybrid warfare” and subsequently categorizing as a hybrid adver-sary. The model will be tested with Afghan Taliban to see whether both the model works and Taliban qualifies as a hybrid adversary or not. According to the model used in this thesis, it is concluded that Taliban does not meet the standards of a hybrid adversary, but with acquisition of standoff weapons it would quickly qualify as one. The model proved to work, and it could be used as a tool by intelligence of-ficers for estimating the threat levels of any group or identifying those groups that are al-ready or are about to develop into a hybrid adversary.

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