Étude théorique des principaux modèles de la pratique du service social personnel

Le service social d'aujourd'hui est confronté à de nouvelles réalités. Nous devons faire face quotidiennement à de nouvelles valeurs qui se heurtent à notre fonctionnement individuel et social. Il faut en arriver à pouvoir composer avec ces nouveaux éléments. Citons par exemple le rôle de la femme qui prend de plus en plus d'importance dans la structure sociale, les étudiants, les travailleurs et les assistés sociaux qui revendiquent leurs droits par des moyens de pressions de plus en plus convaincants, le couple qui ne vit plus exclusivement pour la procréation, l'avortement qui fait l'objet de prises de positions très controversées et enfin le système dans son entier qui est remis en question par certains. Le service social personnel qui agit à un niveau individuel d'intervention se doit de faire face à ces nouvelles réalités et de découvrir des méthodes de travail qui conviennent à cette situation. C'est dans ce contexte que nous entreprenons cette étude. Au Québec, le service social, comme la plupart des sciences sociales, possède un passé qui date de moins d'un siècle. Et dans ces différents domaines comme dans d'autres, nous subissons l'influence de nos voisins du sud. Depuis quelques années, on a tendance à identifier globalement le service social personnel à deux types d'approches: une première communément appelée l'approche traditionnelle à long terme et la seconde appelée l'approche court terme. Ces deux méthodes d'intervention constituaient le guide de référence de ce qu'on appelait le casework. Celui-ci est identifié au Québec par divers termes, soient ceux d'intervention clinique, d'intervention sociale individuelle ou encore de service social personnel. Ces différentes terminologies désignent l'activité du service social auprès des individus et des petits groupes. Si l'on considère le domaine de l'intervention clinique d'une façon plus approfondie, on constate que depuis quelques années, sous l'influence des sciences du comportement et des sciences sociales ainsi qu'à partir de l'expérience de la pratique du service social personnel, se sont développés de nouveaux modèles de pratique. Nous constatons que ces modèles sont peu connus au Québec. Les milieux universitaires commencent à s'y intéresser et les milieux de la pratique en subiront l'influence dans quelques années. Nous croyons qu'un approfondissement de ces modèles pourra vraisemblablement améliorer les méthodes d'action et par conséquent la qualité des services rendus s'y verra peut-être augmentée. Cette étude découle d'un besoin d'explorer le champ des connaissances de l'intervention clinique. Cette exploration pourra conséquemment être utile à ceux qui voudront bien s'en servir. Ce besoin d'améliorer l'état de nos connaissances en service social personnel ressort de certaines observations qui démontrent que plusieurs approches en intervention clinique sont peu connues. Afin de clarifier et d'améliorer notre connaissance théorique des modèles d'intervention clinique, nous procéderons à l'exploration de neuf de ceux-ci. Pour orienter notre observation, nous partirons de variables que nous définirons ultérieurement. Ces variables vont nous guider dans la cueillette des données et dans la présentation de modèles. Avant de présenter systématiquement les modèles, il y aura un chapitre sur la position du problème et un second sur la méthodologie employée. La partie centrale qui traite des approches sera suivie d'une étude comparative.

ENGINEERING DIGITAL SHARING PLATFORM TO CREATE SOCIAL CONTAGION: EVIDENCE FROM LARGE SCALE RANDOMIZED FIELD EXPERIMENTS

Peer-to-peer information sharing has fundamentally changed customer decision-making process. Recent developments in information technologies have enabled digital sharing platforms to influence various granular aspects of the information sharing process. Despite the growing importance of digital information sharing, little research has examined the optimal design choices for a platform seeking to maximize returns from information sharing. My dissertation seeks to fill this gap. Specifically, I study novel interventions that can be implemented by the platform at different stages of the information sharing. In collaboration with a leading for-profit platform and a non-profit platform, I conduct three large-scale field experiments to causally identify the impact of these interventions on customers’ sharing behaviors as well as the sharing outcomes. The first essay examines whether and how a firm can enhance social contagion by simply varying the message shared by customers with their friends. Using a large randomized field experiment, I find that i) adding only information about the sender’s purchase status increases the likelihood of recipients’ purchase; ii) adding only information about referral reward increases recipients’ follow-up referrals; and iii) adding information about both the sender’s purchase as well as the referral rewards increases neither the likelihood of purchase nor follow-up referrals. I then discuss the underlying mechanisms. The second essay studies whether and how a firm can design unconditional incentive to engage customers who already reveal willingness to share. I conduct a field experiment to examine the impact of incentive design on sender’s purchase as well as further referral behavior. I find evidence that incentive structure has a significant, but interestingly opposing, impact on both outcomes. The results also provide insights about senders’ motives in sharing. The third essay examines whether and how a non-profit platform can use mobile messaging to leverage recipients’ social ties to encourage blood donation. I design a large field experiment to causally identify the impact of different types of information and incentives on donor’s self-donation and group donation behavior. My results show that non-profits can stimulate group effect and increase blood donation, but only with group reward. Such group reward works by motivating a different donor population. In summary, the findings from the three studies will offer valuable insights for platforms and social enterprises on how to engineer digital platforms to create social contagion. The rich data from randomized experiments and complementary sources (archive and survey) also allows me to test the underlying mechanism at work. In this way, my dissertation provides both managerial implication and theoretical contribution to the phenomenon of peer-to-peer information sharing.

La estructura familiar dibujada por los propios niños/as. Una aproximación al dibujo como mediador social en las relaciones sistémicas familiares

Con esta investigación se pretende analizar la idea de familia que tienen los niños/as en la actualidad y cómo la representan a través del dibujo infantil. El estudio ha sido realizado a partir de un muestreo realizado a niños/as de entre 4 y 6 años, extraído de tres escuelas, dos públicas y una privada en Granada (España). La investigación mantiene un carácter cualitativo. Para la realización del mismo hemos utilizado los siguientes procedimientos: recopilación de 100 dibujos, otras tantas entrevistas grabadas en audio, observación visual y notas de campo. Nos aseguramos así un seguimiento tanto del proceso creativo como de la propia opinión de los infantes. En la investigación, los niños/as mostraron plásticamente una idea de familia nuclear, de cuyos progenitores, el padre fue representado apenas participando en las tareas del hogar; mientras que la madre se representó asociada a las tareas domésticas y al cuidado de sus hijos. Sobre otras realidades familiares, en concreto la familia homosexual, carecen absolutamente de referencias.

The Political and Social Dynamics of Poverty, Poor Relief and Health Care in Early-Modern Portugal

By the end of the fifteenth century most European countries had witnessed a profound reformation of their poor relief and health care policies. As this book demonstrates, Portugal was among them and actively participated in such reforms. Providing the first English language monograph on this topic, Laurinda Abreu examines the Portuguese experience and places it within the broader European context. She shows that, in line with much that was happening throughout the rest of Europe, Portugal had not only set up a systematic reform of the hospitals but had also developed new formal arrangements for charitable and welfare provision that responded to the changing socioeconomic framework, the nature of poverty and the concerns of political powers. The defining element of the Portuguese experience was the dominant role played by a new lay confraternity, the confraternity of the Misericórdia, created under the auspices of King D. Manuel I in 1498. By the time of the king's death in 1521 there were more than 70 Misericórdias in Portugal and its empire, and by 1640, more than 300. All of them were run according to a unified set of rules and principles with identical social objectives. Based upon a wealth of primary source documentation, this book reveals how the sixteenth-century Portuguese crown succeeded in implementing a national poor relief and health care structure, with the support of the Papacy and local elites, and funded principally through pious donations. This process strengthened the authority of the royal government at a time which coincided with the emergence of the early modern state. In so doing, the book establishes poor relief and public health alongside military, diplomatic and administrative authorities, as the pillars of centralisation of royal power.

La inobservancia a las normas sociales: hendiduras a la ontología de la realidad social

El presente estudio ofrece una interpretación de naturaleza ontológica a uno de los fenómenos más divulgados recientemente por los medios informativos de comunicación: la displicencia de los sujetos al seguimiento de normas sociales. El trabajo se centra, especialmente, en los casos en los que se asume que la indiferencia a las normas tiene como causa la condición del privilegiado social. Argumenta que la inobservancia a las normas, más que ser un asunto de desigualdad social, es la sintomatología de importantes hendiduras en la ontología de la realidad social. Así, tres partes conforman este trabajo. En la primera se describen algunos casos que, desde los medios de comunicación, se presentan como representativos en la inobservancia a las normas sociales, especialmente, aquellos que son interpretados como un asunto de abuso de privilegio social. En la segunda parte, a partir de algunos trabajos de John Austin, Ulises Moulines y Gottlob Frege, se presenta una concepción de normas sociales, y su valor para la construcción de la ontología social. En la tercera parte, desde la propuesta del filósofo John Searle, se describen algunos rasgos esenciales de la ontología de la realidad social. Se concluye que el no seguimiento de las normas sociales socava los modos de existencia de la realidad social, y que los casos interpretados por los medios de comunicación como asunto de desigualdad social, requieren una interpretación que tenga en cuenta la estructura de la realidad social.

Clydebank in the inter-war years: a study in economic and social change

The main theme of this thesis is the social, economic and political response of a single community to economic dislocation in the interwar years. The community under consideration is Clydebank., The thesis is divided into several parts. Part I establishes the development of the burgh and considers the physical framework of the community, mainly in the years before 1919. The town's characteristics are examined in terms of population structure and development between the world wars. In the last part of this section there is a review of the economic structure of the burgh and changes occurring in it between 1919 and 1939. In Part II consideration is given to the actual extent and form of the unemployment affecting Clydebank at this time, and comparison is made with other communities and geographic/economic areas. Attention is then focussed more narrowly on the actual individuals suffering unemployment in the burgh during the 1930s, in an attempt to personalise the experience of the unemployed. Part III reviews central and local government responses to the situation in which Clydebank found itself oetween 1919 and 1939. Central government policies discussed include unemployment insurance, public works, the Special Areas legislation, assistance in the construction of the 534 "Queen Mary" and the direction of financial support to areas of particular need. Amongst local authority actions described are additional local support for the poor, public works, efforts to attract new industry to the town, attempts to deal with the housing problem which was particularly acute at times of high unemployment and measures to maintain health standards in the community. In Part IV the responses of the community to unemployment and government policies are detailed. The burgh's commercial sector is surveyed as are developments in leisure provision, religion, temperance and crime, and local politics. A number of individual responses are also given consideration such as migration, commuting, changes in birth and marriage rates and suicide.

Las posibilidades de internet en la reconfiguración de la red social primaria del adulto mayor, fracturada por efecto de la migración* El caso de los adultos mayores con parientes migrantes en 6 municipios del departamento del Quindío

El presente artículo muestra cómo Internet se convierte en una herramienta de comunicación importante para reconfigurar la red social primaria del adulto mayor, fracturada por efecto de la migración. En la investigación que le da origien, se pudo constatar que hoy esta red se encuentra dividida en red primaria natural, conformada por los parientes y amigos con los que comparte el día a día, y red primaria virtual, integrada por los parientes migrantes. El escrito centra su interés en presentar las características de la red primaria virtual en la que el adulto mayor se vio impelido a participar para satisfacer sus necesidades comunicacionales. Esta red cumple la función de mantener, pero no de extender, su red social primaria. Los resultados dan cuenta de 4 aspectos: las competencias digitales desarrolladas por el adulto mayor, la estructura, las funciones y los atributos de vínculo de la red primaria virtual. Para ello se acudió a autores como Cabrera, Castell; Madarriaga, Abello & Sierra; Narváez A.; Soto, Navarro & Sánchez; Tovar & Villarraga. La investigación fue de tipo etnográfico, con enfoque cualitativo. Se aplicaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas. Para el tratamiento de la información se utilizó la teoría Fundamentad, de Strauss & Corbin (2002).

Los proyectos interdisciplinares de módulo: una experiencia innovadora en el Grado de Educación Social de la UPV/EHU

[ES]En este artículo se presenta una experiencia de innovación que se ha articulado, en el seno de un diseño curricular a través de módulos, al objeto de mejorar los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje que se están desarrollando en la Facultad de Fª y Ciencias de la Educación de la UPV/EHU. El marco de innovación aprovecha la oportunidad surgida con la configuración de los nuevos planes de estudio para su convergencia en el Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior. El contexto más amplio en el que se enmarca esta experiencia, es el de los cambios organizativos, curriculares y culturales, que está suponiendo la realización de un diseño modular de las nuevas titulaciones de grado (Pedagogía y Educación Social), trabajando en equipos docentes coordinados y contando con el apoyo institucional de la UPV/EHU. La innovación concreta que se presenta, describe minuciosamente uno de los siete módulos que componen la nueva titulación del Grado en Educación Social, y subraya la labor desplegada por el equipo docente que imparte las cinco materias que conforman el módulo en las dos lenguas oficiales: euskara y castellano, al planificar, desarrollar y evaluar la actividad interdisciplinar que les compete de manera coordinada. En este trabajo se reflexiona respecto a las posibilidades que la estructura modular ofrece para acometer un cambio real en la cultura de la práctica docente, y a cómo gestionar factores clave que garanticen el tránsito a un modelo docente activo, participativo y colaborativo. // This paper presents an innovative approach to improving teacher quality that is being developed at the Faculty of Philosophy and Educational Sciences of the UPV / EHU, taking the opportunity arose with the configuration of the new curricula for their convergence in the European Higher Education Area. It is framed in the broader context of organizational change, curriculum and cultural, that is assuming the implementation of a modular design of the new degree (Education and Social Education), working in teams coordinated and with the institutional support of the UPV. The concrete innovation is presented, describes one of the seven modules of the new degree of Social Education, and underlines the work done by the faculty team who teach the five subjects that make up the module in the two official languages: Basque and Spanish, because they must plan, develop and evaluate the interdisciplinary activity in a coordinated manner. We reflect in this paper on the potential that the modular structure offers to undertake real change in the culture of teaching practice, and how to manage key factors to ensure the transition to a teaching model active, participatory and collaborative.

Neural representations of social and non-social uncertainty in human decision making

The social landscape is filled with an intricate web of species-specific desired objects and course of actions. Humans are highly social animals and, as they navigate this landscape, they need to produce adapted decision-making behaviour. Traditionally social and non-social neural mechanisms affecting choice have been investigated using different approaches. Recently, in an effort to unite these findings, two main theories have been proposed to explain how the brain might encode social and non-social motivational decision-making: the extended common currency and the social valuation specific schema (Ruff & Fehr 2014). One way to test these theories is to directly compare neural activity related to social and non-social decision outcomes within the same experimental setting. Here we address this issue by focusing on the neural substrates of social and non-social forms of uncertainty. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) we directly compared the neural representations of reward and risk prediction and errors (RePE and RiPE) in social and non- social situations using gambling games. We used a trust betting game to vary uncertainty along a social dimension (trustworthiness), and a card game (Preuschoff et al. 2006) to vary uncertainty along a non-social dimension (pure risk). The trust game was designed to maintain the same structure of the card game. In a first study, we exposed a divide between subcortical and cortical regions when comparing the way these regions process social and non-social forms of uncertainty during outcome anticipation. Activity in subcortical regions reflected social and non-social RePE, while activity in cortical regions correlated with social RePE and non-social RiPE. The second study focused on outcome delivery and integrated the concept of RiPE in non-social settings with that of fairness and monetary utility maximisation in social settings. In particular these results corroborate recent models of anterior insula function (Singer et al. 2009; Seth 2013), and expose a possible neural mechanism that weights fairness and uncertainty but not monetary utility. The third study focused on functionally defined regions of the early visual cortex (V1) showing how activity in these areas, traditionally considered only visual, might reflect motivational prediction errors in addition to known perceptual prediction mechanisms (den Ouden et al 2012). On the whole, while our results do not support unilaterally one or the other theory modeling the underlying neural dynamics of social and non-social forms of decision making, they provide a working framework where both general mechanisms might coexist.

Analyse du mouvement social Coule pas chez nous!

Face à la multiplication des projets de transport de pétrole brut envisagés par l’industrie pétrolière pour désenclaver les sables bitumineux, de nombreux mouvements d’opposition se sont mis en branle. On retrouve parmi eux notamment des organisations environnementales, des syndicats, des agriculteurs, des municipalités, mais aussi plusieurs groupes citoyens qui témoignent de la mobilisation citoyenne grandissante face à ces projets. Au Québec, l’un des groupes citoyens les plus en vue est la Fondation Coule pas chez nous. Ce groupe est en voie de devenir un acteur politique influent pour ce qui est de son opposition aux projets de transport de pétrole brut touchant le Québec. L’objectif principal de cet essai est donc d’analyser la Fondation Coule pas chez nous pour contribuer à comprendre quels sont les éléments qui ont mené aux succès obtenus par le groupe et quelle est l’influence du groupe sur le monde politique et sur la société. L’analyse de la Fondation Coule pas chez nous démontre tout d’abord que l’organisation et la mobilisation citoyenne qu’elle engendre répondent à la définition de ce qui est un mouvement social. L’analyse met aussi en évidence les forces du groupe, soit l’étendue du réseau sur lequel il s’appuie, la qualité des liens qu’il a pu tisser avec d’autres acteurs influents et son choix de structure d’organisation. À ceci s’ajoutent le pragmatisme de son argumentaire, sa présence sur le terrain et sa capacité à tirer avantage des opportunités qui s’offrent à lui, notamment à l’échelle municipale. Le groupe a aussi su tirer profit de plusieurs événements symboliques, notamment pour le lancement de sa campagne initiale et pour sa participation à diverses manifestations. Ses actions les plus importantes ont été son implication dans un recours judiciaire mené par le Centre québécois du droit de l’environnement et sa collaboration pour la publication du livre Le Piège Énergie Est d’Éric Pineault, paru sous les Éditions Écosociété. La Fondation Coule pas chez nous utilise principalement le discours du développement durable et les variantes de conscience et politique verte du discours de radicalisme vert. L’utilisation de ces discours pourrait lui avoir permis de contribuer à étendre la mobilisation citoyenne et à placer les enjeux des projets d’expansion du complexe des sables bitumineux sur l'agenda politique à l’échelle municipale, provinciale et fédérale. Le groupe pourrait également avoir eu un impact sur le changement de culture des gens, en les rendant plus actifs au sein de leur communauté. Plusieurs pistes et suggestions sont lancées en fin d’essai pour les suites du mouvement. Entre autres, il est conseillé d’impliquer le citoyen le plus possible, de s’assurer de construire une solidarité au sein du groupe et d’orienter le discours vers des émotions mobilisatrices et un ton positif. Il est également suggéré de développer davantage de partenariats avec les communautés autochtones et les mouvements à l’extérieur du Québec.

Gestural communication of music structure during solo classical piano performance

The production and perception of music is a multimodal activity involving auditory, visual and conceptual processing, integrating these with prior knowledge and environmental experience. Musicians utilise expressive physical nuances to highlight salient features of the score. The question arises within the literature as to whether performers’ non-technical, non-sound-producing movements may be communicatively meaningful and convey important structural information to audience members and co-performers. In the light of previous performance research (Vines et al., 2006, Wanderley, 2002, Davidson, 1993), and considering findings within co-speech gestural research and auditory and audio-visual neuroscience, this thesis examines the nature of those movements not directly necessary for the production of sound, and their particular influence on audience perception. Within the current research 3D performance analysis is conducted using the Vicon 12- camera system and Nexus data-processing software. Performance gestures are identified as repeated patterns of motion relating to music structure, which not only express phrasing and structural hierarchy but are consistently and accurately interpreted as such by a perceiving audience. Gestural characteristics are analysed across performers and performance style using two Chopin preludes selected for their diverse yet comparable structures (Opus 28:7 and 6). Effects on perceptual judgements of presentation modes (visual-only, auditory-only, audiovisual, full- and point-light) and viewing conditions are explored. This thesis argues that while performance style is highly idiosyncratic, piano performers reliably generate structural gestures through repeated patterns of upper-body movement. The shapes and locations of phrasing motions are identified particular to the sample of performers investigated. Findings demonstrate that despite the personalised nature of the gestures, performers use increased velocity of movements to emphasise musical structure and that observers accurately and consistently locate phrasing junctures where these patterns and variation in motion magnitude, shape and velocity occur. By viewing performance motions in polar (spherical) rather than cartesian coordinate space it is possible to get mathematically closer to the movement generated by each of the nine performers, revealing distinct patterns of motion relating to phrasing structures, regardless of intended performance style. These patterns are highly individualised both to each performer and performed piece. Instantaneous velocity analysis indicates a right-directed bias of performance motion variation at salient structural features within individual performances. Perceptual analyses demonstrate that audience members are able to accurately and effectively detect phrasing structure from performance motion alone. This ability persists even for degraded point-light performances, where all extraneous environmental information has been removed. The relative contributions of audio, visual and audiovisual judgements demonstrate that the visual component of a performance does positively impact on the over- all accuracy of phrasing judgements, indicating that receivers are most effective in their recognition of structural segmentations when they can both see and hear a performance. Observers appear to make use of a rapid online judgement heuristics, adjusting response processes quickly to adapt and perform accurately across multiple modes of presentation and performance style. In line with existent theories within the literature, it is proposed that this processing ability may be related to cognitive and perceptual interpretation of syntax within gestural communication during social interaction and speech. Findings of this research may have future impact on performance pedagogy, computational analysis and performance research, as well as potentially influencing future investigations of the cognitive aspects of musical and gestural understanding.

Computational Analysis of Intelligent Agents: Social and Strategic Settings

The central motif of this work is prediction and optimization in presence of multiple interacting intelligent agents. We use the phrase `intelligent agents' to imply in some sense, a `bounded rationality', the exact meaning of which varies depending on the setting. Our agents may not be `rational' in the classical game theoretic sense, in that they don't always optimize a global objective. Rather, they rely on heuristics, as is natural for human agents or even software agents operating in the real-world. Within this broad framework we study the problem of influence maximization in social networks where behavior of agents is myopic, but complication stems from the structure of interaction networks. In this setting, we generalize two well-known models and give new algorithms and hardness results for our models. Then we move on to models where the agents reason strategically but are faced with considerable uncertainty. For such games, we give a new solution concept and analyze a real-world game using out techniques. Finally, the richest model we consider is that of Network Cournot Competition which deals with strategic resource allocation in hypergraphs, where agents reason strategically and their interaction is specified indirectly via player's utility functions. For this model, we give the first equilibrium computability results. In all of the above problems, we assume that payoffs for the agents are known. However, for real-world games, getting the payoffs can be quite challenging. To this end, we also study the inverse problem of inferring payoffs, given game history. We propose and evaluate a data analytic framework and we show that it is fast and performant.

A Multidimensional Approach to Social Support: the Questionnaire on the Frequency of and Satisfaction with Social Support (QFSSS)

The Questionnaire on the Frequency of and Satisfaction with Social Support (QFSSS) was designed to assess the frequency of and the degree of satisfaction with perceived social support received from different sources in relation to three types of support: emotional, informational, and instrumental. This study tested the reliability of the questionnaire scores and its criterion and structural validity. The data were drawn from survey interviews of 2042 Spanish people. The results show high internal consistency (values of Cronbach's alpha ranged from .763 to .952). The correlational analysis showed significant positive associations between QFSSS scores and measures of subjective well-being and perceived social support, as well as significant negative associations with measures of loneliness (values of Pearson's r correlation ranged from .11 to .97). Confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modelling verified an internal 4-factor structure that corresponds to the sources of support analysed: partner, family, friends, and community (values ranged from .93 to .95 for the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI); from .95 to .98 for the Comparative Fit Index (CFI); and from .10 to .07 for the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)). These results confirm the validity of the QFSSS as a versatile tool which is suitable for the multidimensional assessment of social support.

Searching for knowledge in the belly of the beast: diversity, social equity and the African graduate student mother's experience in US higher education

Diversity has become a buzz word in public discourse and in educational circles. Higher education institutions in the US have increasingly used this word as a cornerstone of their mission statements and have made increasing efforts to attract students from different backgrounds. As part of the increase in diversity efforts among US colleges, is a significant rise in the number of international students. Attracting international students has become a priority for U.S. universities regardless of size or location. This study examines the intersection between the structure of American educational environment and the blended identities of African Graduate Student Mothers. Within the context of contemporary diversity efforts in US educational institutions, this study examines both the structural environments and the socio-cultural constructs that affect the experiences of African graduate student mothers. Based on a qualitative research interview design, a total of nineteen African graduate student mothers at a Mid-Western University in the US were interviewed individually and in groups over a six weeks period. Results from this study show that apart from the difficult and often dehumanizing treatment African student mothers endure from immigration and consular officials in their various countries and ports of entry, they often find themselves at the margins of their various programs and departments with very little support if any. This is because most of them enroll into graduate programs after arriving as dependants of their spouses; a process that does not allow them to negotiate for departmental commitments and support prior to their arrival. Not only do these women face racial discrimination from white professors, staff and fellow students, but they also experience discrimination and hostilities from African Americans and other minority groups who see them as threats to the limited resources that are often set aside for minority groups in such institutions.

A formação e o desenvolvimento de arranjos cooperativos sob a ótica da imersão social e da economia dos custos de transação: um estrudo de caso na Coopercam e na Unipesca

The current study analyzes the birth and development of two strategic alliances established between shrimp producers in Rio Grande do Norte: the Unipesca and the Coopercam. To achieve this aim, two approaches which, at first sight, could be considered contradictory were used: the Transactional Costs Economy and Embeddedness. The first approach is fundamentally based in the studies of Williamson (1985; 1991; 1996; 1999; 2000; 2002). Embededness, on the other hand, went through the review of a series of authors, such as Burt (1992), Granovetter (1973; 1985), Uzzi (1997), Gulati (1994; 1995; 1997; 1998; 1999; 2000), Nielsen (2005), Ring (2002), Ring and Van de Ven (1994), Zafirovski (2002), among others. To analyze the birth and development of the cooperatives in this study, Gulati s work (1998) was used. This study shows the steps to be studied for a better comprehension of an alliance: the decision of starting an alliance and the choice of the partners, the decision about the governance structure, the evolution of the alliance and the development of the companies which established this partnership. To carry this study out, a study case accordingly to Yin s proposal (2001) was adopted. Semi-structured interviews with pre-defined plots were conducted in two phases: in the beginning of 2006 and in the beginning of 2007. The subjects from the research were, in 2006, representative members of the main associations and corporations, besides the shrimp producers from the state, when the context of the activity was set. In the second phase, in 2007, representative members from the two cooperatives that were listed above were interviewed the president from Coopercam and the marketing manager from Unipesca. Besides these two members, directors from two important organizations in each of these cooperatives were also interviewed, giving out the necessary information for the research. Secondary data was also collected from the Brazilian Association of Crab producers website, as well as from news from important newspapers in RN, such as Tribuna do Norte. The primary data was analyzed in terms of quality, accordingly to the documental analysis technique. Thus, through the data that was collected, it can be concluded that the reasons that motivated the companies to cooperate can be explained in terms of the transactional costs economy. However, the choice of partners is more connected to aspects approached by the social embededness. When aspects related to development and evolution were analyzed, it could be seen that both aspects from TCE and Embededness were vital to explain the development of the cooperatives mentioned