Pharmaceutical consumption and residuals potentially relevant to nutrient cycling in Greater Accra, Ghana

Recycling nutrients form sanitary wastes back into agricultural ecosystems offers an option to alleviate soil depletion in regions where the use of mineral fertiliser is limited. Exemplary nutrient and water cycling approaches, including collection, treatment and use of human urine, are established at Valley View University (VVU) in Greater Accra, Ghana. Concerns have been recently raised in regard to fate and impact of pharmaceutical residues in soils and interlinked environment. To evaluate in how far emerging knowledge can be transposed onto VVU, urban and rural environments in Greater Accra, spatial disease occurrence and drug consumption patterns were studied. Malaria has been found to represent the most severe health burden in Ghana, but there is also a high prevalence of infectious diseases. Drugs consumed in great quantities and in respect to their residual loads potentially problematic in the environment belong to therapeutic groups of: antibiotics, analgesics, drugs for diabetes, antimalarials, cardiovascular drugs and anthelmintics. Drug consumption revealed to be highest in urban and lowest in rural areas. At VVU the range of consumed drugs is comparable to urban areas except for the negligible use of diabetes and cardiovascular medication as well as contraceptives.

Effect of management strategies on the performance of ruminant livestock production systems and the safety of plant and animal products in the city of Sikasso, Mali

The regional population growth in West Africa, and especially its urban centers, will bring about new and critical challenges for urban development policy, especially in terms of ensuring food security and providing employment for the growing population. (Peri-) urban livestock and vegetable production systems, which can contribute significantly to these endeavours, are limited by various constraints, amongst them limited access to expensive production factors and their (in)efficient use. To achieve sustainable production systems with low consumer health risks, that can meet the urban increased demand, this doctoral thesis determined nutrient use efficiencies in representative (peri-) urban livestock production systems in three West African cities, and investigated potential health risks for consumers ensuing from there. The field study, which was conducted during July 2007 to December 2009, undertook a comparative analysis of (peri-) urban livestock production strategies across 210 livestock keeping households (HH) in the three West African cities of Kano/Nigeria (84 HH), Bobo Dioulasso/Burkina Faso (63 HH) and Sikasso/Mali (63 HH). These livestock enterprises were belonging to the following three farm types: commercial gardening plus field crops and livestock (cGCL; 88 HH), commercial livestock plus subsistence field cropping (cLsC; 109 HH) and commercial gardening plus semi-commercial livestock (cGscL; 13 HH) which had been classified in a preceding study; they represented the diversity of (peri-) urban livestock production systems in West Africa. In the study on the efficiency of ruminant livestock production, lactating cowsand sheep herd units were differentiated based on whether feed supplements were offered to the animals at the homestead (Go: grazing only; Gsf: mainly grazing plus some supplement feeding). Inflows and outflows of nutrients were quantified in these herds during 18 months, and the effects of seasonal variations in nutrient availability on animals’ productivity and reproductive performance was determined in Sikasso. To assess the safety of animal products and vegetables, contamination sources of irrigated lettuce and milk with microbiological contaminants, and of tomato and cabbage with pesticide residues in (peri-) urban agriculture systems of Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso were characterized at three occasions in 2009. Samples of irrigation water, organic fertilizer and ix lettuce were collected in 6 gardens, and samples of cabbage and tomato in 12 gardens; raw and curdled milk were sampled in 6 dairy herds. Information on health risks for consumers of such foodstuffs was obtained from 11 health centers in Sikasso. In (peri-) urban livestock production systems, sheep and goats dominated (P<0.001) in Kano compared to Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso, while cattle and poultry were more frequent (P<0.001) in Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso than in Kano. Across cities, ruminant feeding relied on grazing and homestead supplementation with fresh grasses, crop residues, cereal brans and cotton seed cake; cereal grains and brans were the major ingredients of poultry feeds. There was little association of gardens and livestock; likewise field cropping and livestock were rarely integrated. No relation existed between the education of the HH head and the adoption of improved management practices (P>0.05), but the proportion of HH heads with a long-term experience in (peri-) urban agriculture was higher in Kano and in Bobo Dioulasso than in Sikasso (P<0.001). Cattle and sheep fetched highest market prices in Kano; unit prices for goats and chicken were highest in Sikasso. Animal inflow, outflow and dairy herd growth rates were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the Gsf than in the Go cattle herds. Maize bran and cottonseed expeller were the main feeds offered to Gsf cows as dry-season supplement, while Gsf sheep received maize bran, fresh grasses and cowpea pods. The short periodic transhumance of Go dairy cows help them maintaining their live weight, whereas Gsf cows lost weight during the dry season despite supplement feeding at a rate of 1506 g dry matter per cow and day, resulting in low productivity and reproductive performance. The daily live weight gains of calves and lambs, respectively, were low and not significantly different between the Go and the Gsf system. However, the average live weight gains of lambs were significantly higher in the dry season (P<0.05) than in the rainy season because of the high pressure of gastrointestinal parasites and of Trypanosoma sp. In consequence, 47% of the sheep leaving the Go and Gsf herds died due to diseases during the study period. Thermo-tolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli contamination levels of irrigation water significantly exceeded WHO recommendations for the unrestricted irrigation of vegetables consumed raw. Microbial contamination levels of lettuce at the farm gate and the market place in Bobo Dioulasso and at the farm gate in Sikasso were higher than at the market place in Sikasso (P<0.05). Pesticide residues were detected in only one cabbage and one tomato sample and were below the maximum residue limit for consumption. Counts of thermo-tolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli were higher in curdled than in raw milk (P<0.05). From 2006 to x 2009, cases of diarrhea/vomiting and typhoid fever had increased by 11% and 48%, respectively, in Sikasso. For ensuring economically successful and ecologically viable (peri-) urban livestock husbandry and food safety of (peri-) urban foodstuffs of animal and plant origin, the dissemination and adoption of improved feeding practices, livestock healthcare and dung management are key. In addition, measures fostering the safety of animal products and vegetables including the appropriate use of wastewater in (peri-) urban agriculture, restriction to approve vegetable pesticides and the respect of their latency periods, and passing and enforcement of safety laws is required. Finally, the incorporation of environmentally sound (peri-) urban agriculture in urban planning by policy makers, public and private extension agencies and the urban farmers themselves is of utmost importance. To enable an efficient (peri-) urban livestock production in the future, research should concentrate on cost-effective feeding systems that allow meeting the animals’ requirement for production and reproduction. Thereby focus should be laid on the use of crop-residues and leguminous forages. The improvement of the milk production potential through crossbreeding of local cattle breeds with exotic breeds known for their high milk yield might be an accompanying option, but it needs careful supervision to prevent the loss of the local trypanotolerant purebreds.

Development and Integration of Biocontrol Products in Branched Broomrape (Phelipanche ramosa) management in Tomato

Parasitic weeds of the genera Striga, Orobanche, and Phelipanche pose a severe problem for agriculture because they are difficult to control and are highly destructive to several crops. The present work was carried out during the period October, 2009 to February, 2012 to evaluate the potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to suppress P. ramosa on tomatoes and to investigate the effects of air-dried powder and aqueous extracts from Euphorbia hirta on germination and haustorium initiation in Phelipanche ramosa. The work was divided into three parts: a survey of the indigenous mycorrhizal flora in Sudan, second, laboratory and greenhouse experiments (conducted in Germany and Sudan) to construct a base for the third part, which was a field trial in Sudan. A survey was performed in 2009 in the White Nile state, Sudan to assess AMF spore densities and root colonization in nine fields planted with 13 different important agricultural crops. In addition, an attempt was made to study the relationship between soil physico-chemical properties and AMF spore density, colonization rate, species richness and other diversity indices. The mean percentage of AMF colonization was 34%, ranging from 19-50%. The spore densities (expressed as per 100 g dry soil) retrieved from the rhizosphere of different crops were relatively high, varying from 344 to 1222 with a mean of 798. There was no correlation between spore densities in soil and root colonization percentage. A total of 45 morphologically classifiable species representing ten genera of AMF were detected with no correlation between the number of species found in a soil sample and the spore density. The most abundant genus was Glomus (20 species). The AMF diversity expressed by the Shannon–Weaver index was highest in sorghum (H\= 2.27) and Jews mallow (H\= 2.13) and lowest in alfalfa (H\= 1.4). With respect to crop species, the genera Glomus and Entrophospora were encountered in almost all crops, except for Entrophospora in alfalfa. Kuklospora was found only in sugarcane and sorghum. The genus Ambispora was recovered only in mint and okra, while mint and onion were the only species on which no Acaulospora was found. The hierarchical cluster analysis based on the similarity among AMF communities with respect to crop species overall showed that species compositions were relatively similar with the highest dissimilarity of about 25% separating three of the mango samples and the four sorghum samples from all other samples. Laboratory experiments studied the influence of root and stem exudates of three tomato varieties infected by three different Glomus species on germination of P. ramosa. Root exudates were collected 21or 42 days after transplanting (DAT) and stem exudates 42 DAT and tested for their effects on germination of P. ramosa seeds in vitro. The tomato varieties studied did not have an effect on either mycorrhizal colonization or Phelipanche germination. Germination in response to exudates from 42 day old mycorrhizal plants was significantly reduced in comparison to non-mycorrhizal controls. Germination of P. ramosa in response to root exudates from 21 day old plants was consistently higher than for 42 day-old plants (F=121.6; P<.0001). Stem diffusates from non-mycorrhizal plants invariably elicited higher germination than diffusates from the corresponding mycorrhizal ones and differences were mostly statistically significant. A series of laboratory experiments was undertaken to investigate the effects of aqueous extracts from Euphorbia hirta on germination, radicle elongation, and haustorium initiation in P. ramosa. P. ramosa seeds conditioned in water and subsequently treated with diluted E. hirta extract (10-25% v/v) displayed considerable germination (47-62%). Increasing extract concentration to 50% or more reduced germination in response to the synthetic germination stimulants GR24 and Nijmegen-1 in a concentration dependent manner. P. ramosa germlings treated with diluted Euphorbia extract (10-75 % v/v) displayed haustorium initiation comparable to 2, 5-Dimethoxy-p-benzoquinon (DMBQ) at 20 µM. Euphorbia extract applied during conditioning reduced haustorium initiation in a concentration dependent manner. E. hirta extract or air-dried powder, applied to soil, induced considerable P. ramosa germination. Pot experiments were undertaken in a glasshouse at the University of Kassel, Germany, to investigate the effects of P. ramosa seed bank on tomato growth parameters. Different Phelipanche seed banks were established by mixing the parasite seeds (0 - 32 mg) with the potting medium in each pot. P. ramosa reduced all tomato growth parameters measured and the reduction progressively increased with seed bank. Root and total dry matter accumulation per tomato plant were most affected. P. ramosa emergence, number of tubercles, and tubercle dry weight increased with the seed bank and were, invariably, maximal with the highest seed bank. Another objective was to determine if different AM fungi differ in their effects on the colonization of tomatoes with P. ramosa and the performance of P. ramosa after colonization. Three AMF species viz. GIomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae and Glomus Sprint® were used in this study. For the infection, P. ramosa seeds (8 mg) were mixed with the top 5 cm soil in each pot. No mycorrhizal colonization was detected in un-inoculated control plants. P. ramosa infested, mycorrhiza inoculated tomato plants had significantly lower AMF colonization compared to plants not infested with P. ramosa. Inoculation with G. intraradices, G. mosseae and Glomus Sprint® reduced the number of emerged P. ramosa plants by 29.3, 45.3 and 62.7% and the number of tubercles by 22.2, 42 and 56.8%, respectively. Mycorrhizal root colonization was positively correlated with number of branches and total dry matter of tomatoes. Field experiments on tomato undertaken in 2010/12 were only partially successful because of insect infestations which resulted in the complete destruction of the second run of the experiment. The effects of the inoculation with AMF, the addition of 10 t ha-1 filter mud (FM), an organic residues from sugar processing and 36 or 72 kg N ha-1 on the infestation of tomatoes with P. ramosa were assessed. In un-inoculated control plants, AMF colonization ranged between 13.4 to 22.1% with no significant differences among FM and N treatments. Adding AMF or FM resulted in a significant increase of branching in the tomato plants with no additive effects. Dry weights were slightly increased through FM application when no N was applied and significantly at 36 kg N ha-1. There was no effect of FM on the time until the first Phelipanche emerged while AMF and N application interacted. Especially AMF inoculation resulted in a tendency to delayed P. ramosa emergence. The marketable yield was extremely low due to the strong fruit infestation with insects mainly whitefly Bemisia tabaci and tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta). Tomatoes inoculated with varied mycorrhiza species displayed different response to the insect infestation, as G. intraradices significantly reduced the infestation, while G. mosseae elicited higher insect infestation. The results of the present thesis indicate that there may be a potential of developing management strategies for P. ramosa targeting the pre-attachment stage namely germination and haustorial initiation using plant extracts. However, ways of practical use need to be developed. If such treatments can be combined with AMF inoculation also needs to be investigated. Overall, it will require a systematic approach to develop management tools that are easily applicable and affordable to Sudanese farmers. It is well-known that proper agronomical practices such as the design of an optimum crop rotation in cropping systems, reduced tillage, promotion of cover crops, the introduction of multi-microbial inoculants, and maintenance of proper phosphorus levels are advantageous if the mycorrhiza protection method is exploited against Phelipanche ramosa infestation. Without the knowledge about the biology of the parasitic weeds by the farmers and basic preventive measures such as hygiene and seed quality control no control strategy will be successful, however.

Management practices and challenges in smallholder indigenous chicken production in Western Kenya

The potential benefit of indigenous chicken (Gallus domesticus) production is still under-exploited in Kenya despite the efforts by different stakeholders to mainstream this production system as a pathway to rural development. The production system is often characterized by low input-low output productivity and low commercialization of the enterprise. This study which dwells on the current management practices and challenges faced by smallholder indigenous chicken farmers was conducted to gain insights into the underlying causes of production constraints. In Western Kenya women (76%) dominate the indigenous chicken production system. The flock composition consists mainly of chicks, hens and pullets (80%) which reflects their retention for production purposes. Less than half of the farmers access institutional support services such as extension, training, credit and veterinary services. In addition, indigenous chicken is largely reared in a low input-low output free-range system with only few farmers (24.2%) adopting management interventions as disseminated by extension service. To improve production and attain increased productivity, policy should focus on repackaging extension messages that considers farmers economic situations and strengthens collective action initiatives. Accessing joint input purchase and collective marketing of chicken products may further assist the farmers to increase profit margins.

Meat yield and quality of Tanzania Shorthorn Zebu cattle finished on molasses/maize grain with agro-processing by-products in 90 days feedlot period

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of feeding molasses or maize grain with agro-processing by-products on yield and quality of meat from Tanzania shorthorn zebu (TSZ) cattle. Forty five steers aged 2.5 to 3.0 years with 200 +/- 5.4 kg body weight were allocated into five dietary treatments namely hominy feed with molasses (HFMO), rice polishing with molasses (RPMO), hominy feed with maize meal (HFMM), rice polishing with maize meal (RPMM) and maize meal with molasses (MMMO). Ad libitum amount of each dietary treatment and hay were offered to nine steers for 90 days. Cooking loss (CL) and Warner Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values were determined on M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum aged for 3, 6, 9 and 12 days. Steers fed on HFMO diet had higher (P < 0.05) nutrient intake (86.39 MJ/d energy; 867 g/d CP), weight gain (919 g/d) and half carcass weight (75.8 kg) than those fed other diets. Meat of steers from all diets was tender with average WBSF values of 47.9 N cm^(−2). The CL (22.0 +/- 0.61%) and WBSF (53.4 +/- 0.70 N cm^(−2)) were highest in meat aged for 3 days followed by 6, 9 and 12 days. WBSF values for meat aged for 9 and 12 days from steers fed HFMO and RPMM diets were similar and lower than those on other dietary treatments x aging periods. Overall, molasses and hominy feed can be used to replace maize meal in feedlot finishing diets to spare its use in animal feeds.

Plan exportador del producto Amitraz 20,8% de la empresa Onlypharm Ltda.

Este trabajo se realizó durante los meses de Junio y Julio del año 2010 en las instalaciones de la empresa Onlypharm Ltda en la Ciudad de Bogotá D.C. gracias al apoyo del equipo directivo compuesto por Yamile Rojas Romero (Gerencia General) y Gustavo Hernández Hernández (Subgerente). El trabajo consiste en la elaboración detallada del plan de exportador del producto más representativo de la organización en el momento: Amitraz 20,8% un ectoparasiticida para el ganado. Dentro del plan se analizan los posibles destinos de la exportación haciendo énfasis en la escasa experiencia de la organización en esta práctica, y se determina que se debe iniciar exportando a San Pedro Sula en Honduras. La operación es financieramente atractiva para los inversionistas, y está programada para ponerse en práctica en Septiembre de 2010 tomando como punto de partida las recomendaciones y conclusiones de este estudio.

Porter’s model and exports in Colombia: analysis of two profitable products

Tanto las industrias legales como ilegales tienen líderez y gerentes. Estas personas al mando deben hacer decisiones estrategicas con el fin de asegurar la rentabilidad de sus negocios. La manera en que ellos toman estas decisiones y las consecuencias de estas mismas son las preguntas que este documento pretende resolver. Haciendo una aplicación general del modelo de Michael Porter, este documento analiza y describe brevemente la configuración de ambos mercados (legal e illegal): es decir las maneras de hacer negocios, las tácticas utilizadas para negociar con los proveedores y compradores, las estrategias para resaltar los beneficios de sus productos frente a los sustitutos, y en general las acciones realizadas para competir, obtener un posicionamiento y porción en el mercado total. El objetivo de este documento no es exaltar las estrategias de los líderes en las industrias ilegales, sino resaltar aquello que los directivos en las industrias legales podrían hacer mejor para mejorar el nombre de los productos colombianos en el exterior.

Pharmaceutical innovation, reference pricing and therapeutic classes

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Capacidades dinámicas; la fuente de sostenibilidad ante el cambio

Las capacidades dinámicas constituyen un aporte importante a la estrategia empresarial. De acuerdo con esta premisa se desarrolla el siguiente documento, al reconocer que la generación de competencias se consolida como la base teórica para el logro de sostenibilidad ante eventos de cambio que puedan afectar la estabilidad y la toma de decisiones de las organizaciones. Dada la falta de aplicación empírica del concepto se ha elaborado este paper, en el que se demuestran e identifican las herramientas que la aplicación empiríca puede dar a las organizaciones y los instrumentos que proveen para la generación de valor. A través del caso de estudio ASOS.COM se ejemplifica la necesidad de detección y aprovechamiento de oportunidades y amenazas, así como la reconfiguración, renovación y generación de competencias de segundo orden para enfrentar el cambio. De esta manera por medio de las habilidades creadas al interior de las empresas con enfoque en el aprendizaje e innovación se logra la comprensión del negocio y el afianzamiento de mejores escenarios futuros.

Análisis de las posibilidades de exportación de productos agropecuarios colombianos hacia la República de Corea

El comercio internacional es básico para el desarrollo económico de algunos países, en la actualidad los tratados de libre comercio son un recurso que se utiliza actualmente en muchos países para poder obtener beneficios económicos. Dado que se firmó en 2013 el tratado de libre comercio entre Colombia y la República de Corea surgió un interés por desarrollar un trabajo investigativo, debido a los pocos que se han realizado con respecto a este tema, que tratara las oportunidades que le surgen a la economía nacional con dicho tratado. Se determina con la investigación, de acuerdo a la oferta de la producción colombiana, cuales son las verdaderas oportunidades que debe aprovechar el país con respecto a su sector agropecuario.

Teoría de restricciones aplicada a la cadena de suministros en un operador logístico de productos farmacéuticos

En las instituciones hospitalarias es fundamental el tema relacionado con los medicamentos y dispositivos médicos para la atención del paciente, por lo tanto el mecanismo de adquisición y disponibilidad de éstos productos, ha llevado a la participación masiva de operadores logísticos (Outsoursing) interviniendo áreas de la cadena de suministros, desde el punto de fabricación con el producto terminado hasta la dispensación del medicamento o dispositivo médico, para que ser usado o administrado al paciente. Los operadores logísticos han emprendido una búsqueda de soluciones por medio de diferentes metodologías y estrategias que permitan entregar a tiempo en las farmacias hospitalarias, conservando las propiedades físicas y químicas de los medicamentos y dispositivos médicos, garantizando así la calidad de los productos. En ésta tesis se plantea una nueva alternativa de gestión de medicamentos y dispositivos médicos en un operador logístico de productos farmacéuticos a través de la teoría de restricciones (TOC), para emprender acciones que permitan analizar el sistema bajo esta metodología, intervenir de manera oportuna, impactar y estimular al personal a trabajar en la búsqueda del mejoramiento , aumentando a su vez la velocidad del flujo de operación en toda la cadena de suministros, basada no en el mejoramiento de los óptimos locales o de los subprocesos sino en la identificación de la verdadera restricción del sistema, permitiendo realizar un análisis más a fondo encontrando el conflicto raíz para mejorar el sistema a nivel global.

Perfil logístico para el sector naturista en Colombia

Los productos naturistas buscan mejorar la salud a base de aplicaciones fito terapéuticas o uso extractivo de plantas medicinales. Dada la ausencia de datos y la informalización del sector naturista en Colombia se adelanta un proceso de investigación para implementar procedimientos que aseguren una óptima gestión en cada una de las áreas y determinar las necesidades de los clientes y el mayor grado de satisfacción. En desarrollo de lo expuesto, se identifican los elementos claves a considerar en el diseño de un modelo óptimo de gestión de suministros y abastecimiento del sector para garantizar la generación de resultados positivos, en cumplimiento de las políticas y estrategias del sector.