Should I stay or should I go? : Reproductive and dispersal strategies of site-specific liverwort species

The area of intensively managed forests, in which required conditions for several liverwort species are seldom found, has expanded over the forest landscape during the last century. Liverworts are very sensitive to habitat changes, because they demand continuously moist microclimate. Consequently, about third of the forest liverworts have been classified as threatened or near threatened in Finland. The general objective of this thesis is to increase knowledge of the reproductive and dispersal strategies of the substrate-specific forest bryophytes. A further aim was to develop recommendations for conservation measures for species inhabiting unstable and stable habitats in forest landscape. Both population ecological and genetic methods have been applied in the research. Anastrophyllum hellerianum inhabits spatially and temporally limited substrate patches, decaying logs, which can be considered as unstable habitats. The results show that asexual reproduction by gemmae is the dominant mode of reproduction, whereas sexual reproduction is considerably infrequent. Unlike previously assumed, not only spores but also the asexual propagules may contribute to long-distance dispersal. The combination of occasional spore production and practically continuous, massive gemma production facilitates dispersal both on a local scale and over long distances, and it compensates for the great propagule losses that take place preceding successful establishment at suitable sites. However, establishment probability of spores may be restricted because of environmental and biological limitations linked to the low success of sexual reproduction. Long-lasting dry seasons are likely to result in a low success of sexual reproduction and decreased release rate of gemmae from the shoots, and consequent fluctuations in population sizes. In the long term, the substratum limitation is likely to restrict population sizes and cause local extinctions, especially in small-sized remnant populations. Contrastingly, larger forest fragments with more natural disturbance dynamics, to which the species is adapted, are pivotal to species survival. Trichocolea tomentella occupies stable spring and mesic habitats in woodland. The relatively small populations are increasingly fragmented with a high risk for extinction for extrinsic reasons. The results show that T. tomentella mainly invests in population persistence by effective clonal growth via forming independent ramets and in competitive ability, and considerably less in sexuality and dispersal potential. The populations possess relatively high levels of genetic diversity regardless of population size and of degree of isolation. Thus, the small-sized populations inhabiting stable habitats should not be neglected when establishing conservation strategies for the species and when considering the habitat protection of small spring sites. Restricted dispersal capacity, also on a relatively small spatial scale, is likely to prevent successful (re-)colonization in the potential habitat patches of recovering forest landscapes. By contrast, random short-range dispersal of detached vegetative fragments within populations at suitable habitat seems to be frequent. Thus, the restoration actions of spring and streamside habitats close to the populations of T. tomentella may contribute to population expansion. That, in turn, decreases the harmful effects of environmental stochasticity.

Ecology, population genetics and conservation of the African violet

The ongoing rapid fragmentation of tropical forests is a major threat to global biodiversity. This is because many of the tropical forests are so-called biodiversity 'hotspots', areas that host exceptional species richness and concentrations of endemic species. Forest fragmentation has negative ecological and genetic consequences for plant survival. Proposed reasons for plant species' loss in forest fragments are, e.g., abiotic edge effects, altered species interactions, increased genetic drift, and inbreeding depression. To be able to conserve plants in forest fragments, the ecological and genetic processes that threaten the species have to be understood. That is possible only after obtaining adequate information on their biology, including taxonomy, life history, reproduction, and spatial and genetic structure of the populations. In this research, I focused on the African violet (genus Saintpaulia), a little-studied conservation flagship from the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot of Tanzania and Kenya. The main objective of the research was to increase understanding of the life history, ecology and population genetics of Saintpaulia that is needed for the design of appropriate conservation measures. A further aim was to provide population-level insights into the difficult taxonomy of Saintpaulia. Ecological field work was conducted in a relatively little fragmented protected forest in the Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains, in northeastern Tanzania, complemented by population genetic laboratory work and ecological experiments in Helsinki, Finland. All components of the research were conducted with Saintpaulia ionantha ssp. grotei, which forms a taxonomically controversial population complex in the study area. My results suggest that Saintpaulia has good reproductive performance in forests with low disturbance levels in the East Usambara Mountains. Another important finding was that seed production depends on sufficient pollinator service. The availability of pollinators should thus be considered in the in situ management of threatened populations. Dynamic population stage structures were observed suggesting that the studied populations are demographically viable. High mortality of seedlings and juveniles was observed during the dry season but this was compensated by ample recruitment of new seedlings after the rainy season. Reduced tree canopy closure and substrate quality are likely to exacerbate seedling and juvenile mortality, and, therefore, forest fragmentation and disturbance are serious threats to the regeneration of Saintpaulia. Restoration of sufficient shade to enhance seedling establishment is an important conservation measure in populations located in disturbed habitats. Long-term demographic monitoring, which enables the forecasting of a population s future, is also recommended in disturbed habitats. High genetic diversities were observed in the populations, which suggest that they possess the variation that is needed for evolutionary responses in a changing environment. Thus, genetic management of the studied populations does not seem necessary as long as the habitats remain favourable for Saintpaulia. The observed high levels of inbreeding in some of the populations, and the reduced fitness of the inbred progeny compared to the outbred progeny, as revealed by the hand-pollination experiment, indicate that inbreeding and inbreeding depression are potential mechanisms contributing to the extinction of Saintpaulia populations. The relatively weak genetic divergence of the three different morphotypes of Saintpaulia ionantha ssp. grotei lend support to the hypothesis that the populations in the Usambara/lowlands region represent a segregating metapopulation (or metapopulations), where subpopulations are adapting to their particular environments. The partial genetic and phenological integrity, and the distinct trailing habit of the morphotype 'grotei' would, however, justify its placement in a taxonomic rank of its own, perhaps in a subspecific rank.

The effects of habitat edges and trampling intensity on vegetation in urban forests

Although changes in urban forest vegetation have been documented in previous Finnish studies, the reasons for these changes have not been studied explicitly. Especially, the consequences of forest fragmentation, i.e. the fact that forest edges receive more solar radiation, wind and air-borne nutrients than interiors have been ignored. In order to limit the change in urban forest vegetation we need to know why it occurs. Therefore, the effects of edges and recreational use of urban forests on vegetation were investigated together in this thesis to reveal the relative strengths of these effects and to provide recommendations for forest management. Data were collected in the greater Helsinki area (in the cities of Helsinki, Vantaa and Espoo, and in the municipalities of Sipoo and Tuusula) and in the Lahti region (in the city of Lahti and in the municipality of Hollola) by means of systematic and randomized vegetation and soil sampling and tree measurements. Sample plots were placed from the forest edges to the interiors to investigate the effects of forest edges, and on paths of different levels of wear and off these paths to investigate the effects of trampling. The natural vegetation of mesic and sub-xeric forest site types studied was sensitive both to the effects of the edge and to trampling. The abundances of dwarf shrubs and bryophytes decreased, while light- and nitrogen-demanding herbs and grasses - and especially Sorbus aucuparia – were favoured at the edges and next to the paths. Results indicated that typical forest site types at the edges are changing toward more nitrophilic vegetation communities. Covers of the most abundant forest species decreased considerably – even tens of percentages – from interiors to the edges indicating strong edge effects. These effects penetrated at least up to 50 m from the forest edges into the interiors, especially at south to west facing open edges. The effects of trampling were pronounced on paths and even low levels of trampling decreased the abundances of certain species considerably. The effects of trampling extended up to 8 m from path edges. Results showed that the fragmentation of urban forest remnants into small and narrow patches should be avoided in order to maintain natural forest understorey vegetation in the urban setting. Thus, urban forest fragments left within urban development should be at least 3 ha in size, and as circular as possible. Where the preservation of representative original forest interior vegetation is a management aim, closed edges with conifers can act as an effective barrier against solar radiation, wind and urban load, thereby restricting the effects of the edge. Tree volume at the edge should be at least 225-250 m3 ha-1 and the proportion of conifers (especially spruce) 80% or more of the tree species composition. Closed, spruce-dominated edges may also prevent the excessive growth of S. aucuparia saplings at urban forest edges. In addition, closed edges may guide people’s movements to the maintained paths, thus preventing the spontaneous creation of dense path networks. In urban areas the effects of edges and trampling on biodiversity may be considerable, and are important to consider when the aim of management is to prevent the development of homogeneous herb-grass dominated vegetation communities, as was observed at the investigated edges.

Uso de madeiras da Mata Atlântica em construções históricas no Rio de Janeiro

Com a chegada dos europeus ao Brasil, inicia-se a intensa exploração dos recursos da Mata Atlântica, direcionados primeiramente para uso da coroa e, posteriormente, para os assentamentos populacionais da colônia. As informações sobre o uso de madeiras na época do Brasil-colônia de Portugal (1630-1822) são escassas e se encontram dispersas. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar uma referência cruzada utilizando três diferentes tipos de culturas materiais: documentos históricos, artefatos e paisagem. Tendo como foco as senzalas da Fazenda Ponte Alta no estado do Rio de Janeiro/RJ, relacionou-se os dados históricos sobre o uso de madeiras de construção no período colonial com o conhecimento científico atual sobre a flora de Mata Atlântica, identificando as espécies utilizadas no passado e sua ocorrência nos fragmentos florestais remanescentes. Para tal, foram visitadas bibliotecas nacionais e internacionais; analisadas amostras das madeiras da estrutura das senzalas e realizado um inventário fitossociológico nos fragmentos florestais remanescentes. Como um dos principais resultados, destaca-se o expressivo número de espécies madeireiras da Mata Atlântica que eram utilizadas nas construções do Brasil-colônia. E que a preferência de uso de determinados táxons pertencentes à Leguminosae, Sapotaceae e Lauraceae, reflete a disponibilidade e abundância dessas famílias no Bioma. Das espécies identificadas nas estruturas das senzalas, 68% foram citadas nos documentos históricos como sendo utilizadas em construções no período colonial e 37% dessas, também foram amostradas no inventário fitossociológico realizado. Constatou-se que as espécies utilizadas para construção no Brasilcolônia apresentavam, na maioria, boa qualidade e alta resistência o que lhes conferia uma multiplicidade de uso. Essa demanda, certamente, tem reflexos diretos na distribuição geográfica, no tamanho populacional e no status de conservação atual das espécies. Os resultados indicam, também, que os construtores do período, principais atores da história, detinham o conhecimento necessário à utilização das florestas locais. Assim, os dados obtidos nos diferentes materiais analisados se mostraram complementares e com interação entre si, agregando informação e veracidade aos argumentos inicialmente postulados

Análise dos processos recentes de fragmentação e recomposição dos remanescentes florestais do estado do Rio de Janeiro

Ao longo de quase cinco anos de trabalho, foi desenvolvido o Índice de Qualidade dos Municípios - Verde, pela Fundação CIDE. O trabalho buscou retratar as características da fragmentação florestal fluminense. Como um elemento para apoiar a gestão ambiental do território, o projeto identificou corredores ecológicos prioritários para a interligação de fragmentos florestais. A grande contribuição do trabalho, do ponto de vista conceitual, foi reorientar o debate acerca da fragmentação florestal no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. O projeto IQM - Verde apresentou, exaustivamente, lugares onde ocorreram perdas e ganhos de estoques de vegetação com porte arbóreo, num recorte por municípios, bacias hidrográficas e Unidades de Conservação. Existem importantes questões que foram levantadas e ainda aguardam maiores e melhores respostas. Uma delas é tentar explicar, a partir da ecologia de paisagens, quais são os mecanismos que facilitam ou dificultam o processo natural de sucessão florestal. A situação da sucessão florestal é completamente diferente de uma região para outra do Estado. No Noroeste do Estado existem indícios claros de retração e fragmentação dos remanescentes enquanto na região Serrana do Sul Fluminense aparecem sinais claros de recuperação e recomposição florestal. Novos conceitos de gestão ambiental procuram minimizar os efeitos decorrentes da fragmentação e do isolamento espacial das espécies. O aumento da conectividade através de corredores ecológicos entre unidades de conservação e até mesmo entre os fragmentos mais bem conservados é apontado por muitos pesquisadores como uma das formas mais eficazes de promover a manutenção dos remanescentes florestais - a longo prazo - e até mesmo promover a recuperação funcional de determinadas unidades ecológicas atualmente ilhadas. A atual geração de pesquisadores e gestores públicos está diante do problema do controle dos processos que desencadeiam a fragmentação florestal. Portanto, é urgente a necessidade de entender todas as consequências associadas ao processo de fragmentação florestal e, ao mesmo tempo, descobrir os efeitos inibidores deste complexo fenômeno que possui raízes físicas, naturais e sociais. O objetivo central da tese é, a partir de elementos da História das Mentalidades e da Teoria da Decisão, construir cenários de pressão antrópica sobre os remanescentes florestais e propor um programa possível de intervenção econômica, jurídica e política, denominado no presente estudo como bolsa floresta, capaz de aliviar o atual processo de fragmentação florestal.

Avaliação da influência do manejo agrícola no uso e cobertura das terras através de ferramentas de geoprocessamento e indicadores de qualidade dos solos na bacia hidrográfica do Córrego da Caçada - Paraty/RJ

A avaliação da qualidade dos solos e a redução da Mata Atlântica tem sido alvo de diversas pesquisas no Brasil e no mundo, principalmente quando estes estão atrelados ao recorte espacial de Unidades de Conservação. No entanto, tem sido difícil para os gestores dessas unidades a avaliação dos impactos ambientais gerados ao longo dos anos nas bacias hidrográficas, principalmente pela falta de investimentos. Esta dissertação teve por objetivo geral avaliar o atual estágio de degradação da bacia hidrográfica do Córrego da Caçada pertencente à Área de Proteção Ambiental Federal de Cairuçu, no município de Paraty RJ, analisando quantitativamente e qualitativamente a redução dos fragmentos de Mata Atlântica e estabelecendo relações com a degradação física e química dos solos dentro e fora dos fragmentos florestais. A metodologia utilizada para a redução ou avanço dos fragmentos de Mata Atlântica baseou-se no uso de fotografias aéreas do ano de 1956 e imagens de satélite de 2012, onde possibilitou a avaliação espaço-temporal do uso e cobertura das terras, através da produção de um mapa temático final. Além disso, foram elaborados mapas temáticos de reconhecimento da área de estudo, como o de hipsometria, de declividade, de orientação e forma das encostas, além da geração de perfis topográficos. Para a avaliação da qualidade física, química e biológica dos solos foram determinadas as curvas de distribuição granulométrica, a densidade relativa dos grãos sólidos e a densidade aparente, porosidade total, os limites de liquidez e plasticidade, a estabilidade dos agregados em água, análises morfológicas, a saturação de bases, a capacidade de troca catiônica (CTC), a saturação por alumínio, fósforo, pH e o carbono orgânico. Para tal, foi realizada a abertura de três perfis, sendo um em área de fragmento florestal e dois em áreas de pasto. O resultado das análises permitiu, segundo a Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do solo, a classificação de dois tipos de solos na bacia, sendo: Cambissolo Háplico Tb Distrófico Típico em área fragmento florestal e em área de pasto, e um Latossolo Amarelo Tb Distrófico Típico em área de pasto. Os resultados de laboratório mostraram que os solos avaliados têm baixa fertilidade e valores variados nos resultados de física do solo. No entanto, além do histórico de uso do solo caracterizado pelas práticas rudimentares do manejo empregado pelos Caiçaras, o clima predominante na região possibilita um regime pluviométrico anual que passa dos 2.000mm de chuva/ano, caracterizando solos muito lixiviados e pobres quimicamente. Portanto, conclui-se que a relação das propriedades físicas e químicas avaliadas junto ao manejo inadequado ao longo dos anos tem apresentado um cenário de grandes dificuldades para a recuperação florestal na bacia hidrográfica do Córrego da Caçada, o que mostra a importância da avaliação dos impactos ambientais não só pelo recorte de bacias hidrográficas, como contextualizar seu posicionamento dentro de Unidades de Conservação, com legislações e objetivos específicos.

西双版纳热带雨林片断小气候边缘效应研究

以西双版纳地区三个热带雨林片断和一个原始热带雨林为对象，研究了林内至林外、以及林窗内小气候要素的水平和垂直梯度变化规律、小气候边缘效应及其与林缘方位之间的关系、林缘空气流动规律、边缘效应深度、片断后林内生境变化及对气候变化的抵抗能力。利用林墙太阳辐射理论，计算分析了各方位林缘的可照时数。根据Monteith的植物叶面热量平衡方程讨论了叶温度理论模拟方法，计算和分析土壤-植被-大气连续体（SPAC）能量平衡中各分量通量。主要结果如下： 1.西双版纳地区不同方位林缘可照时数一般比水平面减少，只有南向林缘在春、秋分日及北向林缘在夏至日的可照时数与水平面相同。在夏半年，北向林缘可照时间最长，东西向林缘次之，南向林缘最短；在冬半年，南向林缘可照时间最长，与水平面相同，东西向次之，北向林缘最短。年可照时数以南向林缘最长，北向林缘最短。 2.片断化热带森林的小气候边缘效应影响深度在北向林缘深至林内15m、在南向林缘深至林内25m。林外小气候水平梯度大于林内，这种梯度变异尤以林缘附近（-10m  10m范围）最大。统计世界各地研究结果，发现生物和物理环境的边缘效应深度变化于10  500m之间，但主要发生在100m范围内（占87%）。随着边缘效应深度增加或片断面积减小，正方形森林片断受林缘影响面积的百分率增加。圆形森林片断受边缘效应的“蚕食”作用最小，而狭长或不规则森林片断受边缘效应影响最大。 3.在南向林缘外侧10m范围内存在太阳辐射和温度较高地带；林窗边缘林墙壁面有显著得热力效应和水汽效应，尤其在北向边缘更显著。 4.林缘2/3H（H为林缘树高）高处以下及其以上（林冠层及上方）存在一反向双环流，在林冠层处其强度相对较弱。 5.片断化森林对外部变化抵御能力变得更为脆弱，林内环境由湿晾转向干暖，森林生态功能降低。 6.林缘植物叶温表现出气温型（Ta>Tl）、中间型（Ta=Tl）和辐射型（Tl>Ta）三种类型。林缘处草本植物与乔木、藤本植物之间的叶温差异显著，草本比乔木、藤本高约5℃。 7.叶面积指数在林缘最低和在林内25m处最大，林缘叶角小于林内，而在25m处散射光透过系数则最小。

Carbono da biomassa microbiana em solos de cerrado: comparacao dos metodos fumigacao-incubacao e fumigacao-extracao.

Dentre os metodos mais utilizados para determinacao do carbono da biomassa microbiana destacam-se: os de cloroformio-fumigacao-incubacao (CFI) e cloroformio-fumigacao-extracao (CFE). Trabalhos relatados na literatura tem comparado a eficiencia desses metodos em diversos locais. No entanto, para a regiao do cerrado nao existem informacoes a esse respeito. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a eficiencia dos metodos CFE e CFI na determinacao do carbono da biomassa microbiana do solo (CBMS) em areas de cerrado sob cultura anual (rotacao soja-milho) e pastagem consorciada (Andropogon gayanus e Stylosanthes guianensis) e sob tres fitofisionomias - Mata de Galeria, Campo Sujo e Cerradao. Amostras de solo coletadas em duas profundidades, 0 a 5 cm e 5 a 20 cm, foram analisadas em quatro epocas: agosto de 1998, janeiro a agosto de 1999 e janeiro de 2000. Nas areas cultivadas, os resultados obtidos com os metodos CFE e CFI foram semelhantes independentemente dos tratamentos e das epocas amostradas; as pastagens consorciadas apresentaram maiores teores de CBMS do que as areas sob culturas anuais. A integracao profundidades x metodos foi significatica. Nao houve diferencas entre a profundidade 0 a 5 cm quando se utilizou o metodo CFI, mas as diferencas obtidas com o metodo CFE foram significativas. Os metodos CFI e CFE apresentaram as mesmas tendencias nas areas ativas, independentemente dos tratamentos, profundidades ou epocas analisados; a Mata de Galeria apresentou niveis de CBMS superiores aos do Cerradao e do Campo Sujo. As interacoes profundidades x metodos e epocas x metodos foram significativas devido ao fato de que as diferencas nos teores do carbono da bimassa microbiana, nas profundidades e epocas amostradas, foram mais acentuadas com o metodo CFE. Os resultados indicaram que os metodos CFI e CFE foram apropriados para determinacao da CBMS em solos de Cerrado sob cultivo e sob vegetacao nativa.

Rapid succession of plant associations on the small ocean island of Mauritius at the onset of the Holocene

The island of Mauritius offers the opportunity to study the poorly understood vegetation response to climate change on a small tropical oceanic island. A high-resolution pollen record from a 10 m long peat core from Kanaka Crater (560 m elevation, Mauritius, Indian Ocean) shows that vegetation shifted from a stable open wet forest Last Glacial state to a stable closed-stratified-tall-forest Holocene state. An ecological threshold was crossed at ∼11.5 cal ka BP, propelling the forest ecosystem into an unstable period lasting ∼4000 years. The shift between the two steady states involves a cascade of four abrupt (<150 years) forest transitions in which different tree species dominated the vegetation for a quasi-stable period of respectively ∼1900, ∼1100 and ∼900 years. We interpret the first forest transition as climate-driven, reflecting the response of a small low topography oceanic island where significant spatial biome migration is impossible. The three subsequent forest transitions are not evidently linked to climate events, and are suggested to be driven by internal forest dynamics. The cascade of four consecutive events of species turnover occurred at a remarkably fast rate compared to changes during the preceding and following periods, and might therefore be considered as a composite tipping point in the ecosystem. We hypothesize that wet gallery forest, spatially and temporally stabilized by the drainage system, served as a long lasting reservoir of biodiversity and facilitated a rapid exchange of species with the montane forests to allow for a rapid cascade of plant associations.

Biodiversity and conservation of the middle-Araguaia herpetofauna

A conservação da biodiversidade nunca foi uma assunto tão popular como nas últimas décadas, mas esta popularidade crescente é devida à pior das razões: o passo acelerado da extinção de espécies e habitats. Os ecossistemas tropicais são, ao mesmo tempo, os mais diversos e os mais ameaçados, em parte porque muitos países destas regiões emergem ainda de situações de instabilidade social, económica e política. O Brasil é o maior país Neotropical, onde se encontram alguns dos biomas com maior diversidade e mais ameaçados do planeta. Actualmente, é também um país líder ao nível da planificação e implementação de medidas de conservação da biodiversidade. Vários dos biomas tropicais mais diversos e ameaçados encontram-se em território brasileiro. Dois destes biomas, a Amazónia e o Cerrado, convergem numa região ecotonal sujeita a uma elevada pressão humana, conhecida como o arco do desmatamento. O Araguaia, um dos maiores rios do Brasil, corre ao longo desta paisagem e os efeitos do desmatamento são já evidentes em toda a sua bacia. Por causa do acelerado ritmo de degradação deste ecossistema, torna-se urgente obter uma imagem clara da biodiversidade regional e compreender como e se a estratégia de conservação para esta região é capaz de lidar com as correntes ameaças e alcançar o seu objectivo a longo prazo: conservar a biota regional. Tendo a herpetofauna como grupo-alvo, os nossos objectivos principais foram: aumentar o conhecimento das comunidades de anfíbios e répteis squamata da região do curso médio do Rio Araguaia; compreender a importância deste rio nos padrões intraespecíficos de estrutura e diversidade genética para diferentes espécies com diferentes características ecológicas; avaliar o potencial de diferentes metodologias para o estudo e monitorização da herpetofauna regional. Os nossos resultados revelam que a amostragem continuada e o uso de diferentes técnicas são essenciais para a obtenção de uma imagem precisa da diversidade da herpetofauna local. As comunidades locais de anfíbios e lagartos apresentaram maior riqueza específica na Área de Protecção Ambiental Bananal/Cantão (APABC), uma área tampão, do no Parque Estadual do Cantão (PEC), uma área de conservação estrita. A APABC é caracterizada por uma maior heterogeneidade de habitats e os nosso resultados corroboram a teoria da heterogeneidade espacial e resultados recentes que revelam uma maior diversidade de lagartos nas zonas interfluviais do Cerrado, do que nas matas de galeria. Os resultados aqui apresentados não corroboram a hipótese de que os ecótonos apresentam maior diversidade do que os biomas em redor. Os nossos resultados revelaram ainda que o Rio Araguaia afecta de forma diferente a estrutura genética de várias espécies de anfíbios e lagartos. Estas diferenças poderão estar relacionadas com a ecologia das espécies, nomeadamente com o uso de diferentes habitats, a vagilidade, ou a estratégia alimentar. Sugerimos que a gestão integração de diferentes unidades de conservação, com diferentes estatutos, podem ajudar a preservar melhor a biota regional.

Pre-Columbian raised-field agriculture and land use in the Bolivian Amazon

We present an integrated palaeoecological and archaeobotanical study of pre-Columbian raised-field agriculture in the Llanos de Moxos, a vast seasonally inundated forest–savanna mosaic in the Bolivian Amazon. Phytoliths from excavated raised-field soil units, together with pollen and charcoal in sediment cores from two oxbow lakes, were analysed to provide a history of land use and agriculture at the El Cerro raised-field site. The construction of raised fields involved the removal of savanna trees, and gallery forest was cleared from the area by AD 310. Despite the low fertility of Llanos de Moxos soils, we determined that pre-Columbian raised-field agriculture sufficiently improved soil conditions for maize cultivation. Fire was used as a common management practice until AD 1300, at which point, the land-use strategy shifted towards less frequent burning of savannas and raised fields. Alongside a reduction in the use of fire, sweet potato cultivation and the exploitation of Inga fruits formed part of a mixed resource strategy from AD 1300 to 1450. The pre-Columbian impact on the landscape began to lessen around AD 1450, as shown by an increase in savanna trees and gallery forest. Although agriculture at the site began to decline prior to European arrival, the abandonment of raised fields was protracted, with evidence of sweet potato cultivation occurring as late as AD 1800.

Ecological and social drivers of coffee pollination in Santander, Colombia

Bees and other insects provide pollination services that are key to determining the fruit set on coffee plantations. These pollination services are influenced by local ecology as well as human factors, both social and economic. To better understand these different factors, we assessed their effect on pollinators and coffee pollination services in Santander, Colombia. We quantified the effect of key ecological drivers on pollinator community composition, such as the method of farm management (either conventional or organic) and the surrounding landscape composition, specifically the proximity to forest. We found that ambient levels of pollination services provided by the local pollinator fauna (open pollination) accounted for a 10.5 ± 2.0% increase in final coffee fruit set, and that the various pollinators are affected differently by the differing factors. For example, our findings indicate that conventional farm management, using synthetic inputs, can promote pollinators, especially if they are in close proximity to natural forest fragments. This is particularly true for stingless bees. Honeybee visitation to coffee is also positively influenced by the conventional management of farms. Factors associated with greater numbers of stingless bees on farms include greater shade cover, lower tree densities, smaller numbers and types of trees in bloom, and younger coffee plantations. A forested landscape close to farms appears to enhance these factors, giving increased stability and resilience to the pollinating bees and insects. However we found that organic farms also support diverse pollinator communities, even if distant from forest fragments. The contribution of honeybees to pollination value (US$129.6/ha of coffee) is greater than that of stingless bees (US$16.5/ha of coffee). Since the method of farm management has a major impact on the numbers and types of pollinators attracted to farms, we have analysed the statistically significant social factors that influence farmers’ decisions on whether to adopt organic or conventional practices. These include the availability of technology, the type of landowner (whether married couples or individual owners), the number of years of farmers’ formal education, the role of institutions, membership of community organizations, farm size, coffee productivity and the number of coffee plots per farm. It is hoped that the use of our holistic approach, which combines investigation of the social as well as the ecological drivers of pollination, will help provide evidence to underpin the development of best practices for integrating the management of pollination into sustainable agricultural practices.

Habitat Split as a Cause of Local Population Declines of Amphibians with Aquatic Larvae

Most amphibian species have biphasic life histories and undergo an ontogenetic shift from aquatic to terrestrial habitats. In deforested landscapes, streams and forest fragments are frequently disjunct, jeopardizing the life cycle of forest-associated amphibians with aquatic larvae. We tested the impact of habitat split-defined as human-induced disconnection between habitats used by different life-history stages of a species-on four forest-associated amphibian species in a severely fragmented landscape of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We surveyed amphibians in forest fragments with and without streams (referred to as wet and dry fragments, respectively), including the adjacent grass-field matrix. Our comparison of capture rates in dry fragments and nearby streams in the matrix allowed us to evaluate the number of individuals that engaged in high-risk migrations through nonforested habitats. Adult amphibians moved from dry fragments to matrix streams at the beginning of the rainy season, reproduced, and returned at the end of the breeding period. Juveniles of the year moved to dry fragments along with adults. These risky reproductive migrations through nonforested habitats that expose individuals to dehydration, predation, and other hazards may cause population declines in dry fragments. Indeed, capture rates were significantly lower in dry fragments compared with wet fragments. Declining amphibians would strongly benefit from investments in the conservation and restoration of riparian vegetation and corridors linking breeding and nonbreeding areas.

Mitochondrial DNA Diversity of Orchid Bee Euglossa fimbriata (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Populations Assessed by PCR-RFLP

Euglossa fimbriata is a euglossine species widely distributed in Brazil and occurring primarily in Atlantic Forest remnants. In this study, the genetic mitochondrial structure of E. fimbriata from six Atlantic Forest fragments was studied by RFLP analysis of three PCR-amplified mtDNA gene segments (16S, COI-COII, and cyt b). Ten composite haplotypes were identified, six of which were exclusive and represented singleton mitotypes. Low haplotype diversity (0.085-0.289) and nucleotide diversity (0.000-0.002) were detected within samples. AMOVA partitioned 91.13% of the overall genetic variation within samples and 8.87% (I center dot(st) = 0.089; P < 0.05) among samples. Pairwise comparisons indicated high levels of differentiation among some pairs of samples (I center dot(st) = 0.161-0.218; P < 0.05). These high levels indicate that these populations of E. fimbriata, despite their highly fragmented landscape, apparently have not suffered loss of genetic variation, suggesting that this particular population is not currently endangered.

Passive Restoration in Biodiversity Hotspots: Consequences for an Atlantic Rainforest Lizard Taxocene

Long-term conservation in biodiversity hotspots depends on the recovery of communities in secondary forest fragments. In most cases, however, recovery strategies for these areas are based only on passive restoration. It is therefore necessary to determine the efficiency of such strategies. In this study, we assess the efficiency of passive restoration on a 567-ha 28-yr-old fragment of Atlantic Rainforest in Northeastern Brazil. We measured richness, composition, abundance and biomass of a lizard taxocene and also vegetation structure and availability of several microhabitat descriptors in 18 plots of this secondary forest. We then compared them with measures in 29 plots from two neighboring reference sites. Species richness, abundance, biomass and microhabitat descriptors availability inside the secondary fragment did not differ from reference sites. However, composition and vegetation structure showed small differences. Some forest specialist lizards, which should be a focus of conservation efforts in fragmented landscapes of the Atlantic Rainforest, were not found in the fragment and data indicate that this was not due to sampling or a lack of suitable habitat or microhabitat. In the presence of preserved source sites, passive restoration may be a cheap and effective way to recover lizard taxocenes of the Atlantic Rainforest. Some of the species may need to be re-introduced to accelerate the full recovery of original composition of lizard taxocenes in secondary Atlantic Rainforests.