Toll-like receptor agonists synergize with CD40L to induce either proliferation or plasma cell differentiation of mouse B cells.

In a classical dogma, pathogens are sensed (via recognition of Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs)) by innate immune cells that in turn activate adaptive immune cells. However, recent data showed that TLRs (Toll Like Receptors), the most characterized class of Pattern Recognition Receptors, are also expressed by adaptive immune B cells. B cells play an important role in protective immunity essentially by differentiating into antibody-secreting cells (ASC). This differentiation requires at least two signals: the recognition of an antigen by the B cell specific receptor (BCR) and a T cell co-stimulatory signal provided mainly by CD154/CD40L acting on CD40. In order to better understand interactions of innate and adaptive B cell stimulatory signals, we evaluated the outcome of combinations of TLRs, BCR and/or CD40 stimulation. For this purpose, mouse spleen B cells were activated with synthetic TLR agonists, recombinant mouse CD40L and agonist anti-BCR antibodies. As expected, TLR agonists induced mouse B cell proliferation and activation or differentiation into ASC. Interestingly, addition of CD40 signal to TLR agonists stimulated either B cell proliferation and activation (TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9) or differentiation into ASC (TLR1/2, TLR2/6, TLR4 and TLR7). Addition of a BCR signal to CD40L and either TLR3 or TLR9 agonists did not induce differentiation into ASC, which could be interpreted as an entrance into the memory pathway. In conclusion, our results suggest that PAMPs synergize with signals from adaptive immunity to regulate B lymphocyte fate during humoral immune response.

Toll-like receptor 3 is necessary for dsRNA adjuvant effects.

Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns, and the binding of their specific ligands triggers a proinflammatory response that helps to fight invading microorganisms, and can be harnessed to increase vaccine efficiency. The present study demonstrates that double-stranded RNA is a promising vaccine adjuvant able to increase both proliferation and activation of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Importantly, TLR3 is required for this adjuvant effect, as TLR3 deficient recipients failed to enhance proliferation of adoptively transferred TCR transgenic CD8(+) T cells in the presence of double-stranded RNA. Finally, this study also shows that, in contrast to previous reports in humans, TLR3 does not exert direct costimulatory activity on CD8(+) T cells in mice.

Protein level expression of Toll-like receptors 2, 4 and 9 in renal disease.

Background. Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognize a variety of ligands, including pathogen-associated molecular patterns and link innate and adaptive immunity. Individual receptors can be up-regulated during infection and inflammation. We examined the expression of selected TLRs at the protein level in various types of renal disease.Methods. Frozen sections of renal biopsies were stained with monoclonal antibodies to TLR-2, -4 and -9.Results. Up-regulation of the three TLRs studied was seen, although the extent was modest. TLR-2- and -4-positive cells belonged to the population of infiltrating inflammatory cells; only in the case of TLR-9 were intrinsic glomerular cells positive in polyoma virus infection and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS).Conclusions. Evidence for the involvement of the three TLRs tested in a variety of human renal diseases was found. These findings add to our understanding of the role of the innate immune system in kidney disease.

The number of Toll-like receptor 9-agonist motifs in the adenovirus genome correlates with induction of dendritic cell maturation by adenovirus immune complexes.

Adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) vectors and specific neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) generate immune complexes (ICs) which are potent inducers of dendritic cell (DC) maturation. Here we show that ICs generated with rare Ad vector serotypes, such as Ad26 and Ad35, which are lead candidates in HIV vaccine development, are poor inducers of DC maturation and that their potency in inducing DC maturation strongly correlated with the number of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-agonist motifs present in the Ad vector's genome. In addition, we showed that antihexon but not antifiber antibodies are responsible for the induction of Ad IC-mediated DC maturation.

Role of MyD88 and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in the sensing of Parachlamydia acanthamoebae.

Parachlamydia acanthamoebae is a Chlamydia-related organism whose pathogenic role in pneumonia is supported by serological and molecular clinical studies and an experimental mouse model of lung infection. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a seminal role in sensing microbial products and initiating innate immune responses. The aim of this study was to investigate the roles of MyD88, TLR2, and TLR4 in the interaction of Parachlamydia with macrophages. Here, we showed that Parachlamydia entered bone-marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) in a TLR-independent manner but did not multiply intracellularly. Interestingly, compared to live bacteria, heat-inactivated Parachlamydia induced the production of substantial amounts of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-12p40 by BMDMs and of TNF and IL-6 by peritoneal macrophages as well as RAW 264.7 and J774 macrophage cell lines. Cytokine production by BMDMs, which was partially inhibited upon trypsin treatment of Parachlamydia, was dependent on MyD88, TLR4, and, to a lesser extent, TLR2. Finally, MyD88(-/-), TLR4(-/-), and TLR2(-/-) mice were as resistant as wild-type mice to lung infection following the intratracheal instillation of Parachlamydia. Thus, in contrast to Chlamydia pneumoniae, Parachlamydia acanthamoebae weakly stimulates macrophages, potentially compensating for its low replication capacity in macrophages by escaping the innate immune surveillance.

Toll-like receptor 3 expressed by melanoma cells as a target for therapy?

PURPOSE: The immunomodulatory properties of Toll-like receptors (TLR) agonists have inspired their use as experimental adjuvants for vaccination of cancer patients. However, it is now well recognized that TLR expression is not restricted to immune cells but can also be found in many cell types, including those giving rise to tumors. It is therefore mandatory to explore the potential effects of TLR triggering directly on tumor cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: In the present work, we have investigated TLR3 protein expression in melanoma cell lines derived from patients, and analyzed the effects of TLR3 agonists on tumor cell survival. Moreover, we used RNA interference to stably knock down TLR3 expression and study the involvement of this receptor in dsRNA-induced effects on melanoma cells viability. RESULTS: Human melanoma cells can express functional TLR3 protein. Interestingly, the engagement of the receptor by TLR3 agonists can directly inhibit cell proliferation and induce tumor cell death when combined to treatment with either type I IFN or protein synthesis inhibitors. These effects were shown by RNA interference to be largely dependent on TLR3. Moreover, TLR3-mediated cell death involves the activation of caspases and engages both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. CONCLUSION: TLR3 protein can be expressed in human melanoma cells, where it can deliver proapoptotic and antiproliferative signaling. Altogether, these results suggest that TLR3 agonists represent very promising adjuvants for cancer vaccines not only based on their well-described immunostimulatory properties, but also due to their newly identified cytostatic and cytotoxic effects directly on tumor cells.

Psoriasis triggered by toll-like receptor 7 agonist imiquimod in the presence of dermal plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors.

BACKGROUND: It has been proposed that the innate immune system plays a central role in driving the autoimmune T-cell cascade leading to psoriasis; however, there is no direct evidence for this. OBSERVATIONS: We observed aggravation and spreading of a psoriatic plaque when treated topically with the toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 agonist imiquimod. The exacerbation of psoriasis was accompanied by a massive induction of lesional type I interferon activity, detected by MxA expression after imiquimod therapy. Since imiquimod induces large amounts of type I interferon production from TLR7-expressing plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors (PDCs), the natural interferon-producing cells of the peripheral blood, we asked whether PDCs are present in psoriatic skin. We identified high numbers of PDCs in psoriatic skin lesions (up to 16% of the total dermal infiltrate) based on their coexpression of BDCA2 and CD123. By contrast, PDCs were present at very low levels in atopic dermatitis and not detected in normal human skin. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that psoriasis can be driven by the innate immune system through TLR ligation. Furthermore, our finding that large numbers of PDCs infiltrate psoriatic skin suggests a role of lesional PDCs as type I interferon-producing targets for the TLR7 agonist imiquimod.

Role of Toll-Like Receptor 9 Signaling in Experimental Leishmania braziliensis Infection.

Infection with Leishmania braziliensis causes cutaneous or mucocutaneous leismaniasis in humans. Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) expression has been found in granulomas of lesions in L. braziliensis-infected individuals. L. braziliensis inoculation in mice induces very small lesions that are self-healing, whereas deficiency in the TLR adaptor molecule, MyD88, renders mice susceptible to infection. The TLR involved has not been identified, prompting us to investigate if TLR9 triggering by the parasite contributes to the strong resistance to infection observed in L. braziliensis-inoculated mice. The parasites activated wild-type (WT) dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro but not DCs derived from TLR9(-/-) mice. TLR9(-/-) mice inoculated with L. braziliensis exhibited a transient susceptibility characterized by increased lesion size and parasite burden compared to those of WT mice. Surprisingly, elevated levels of gamma interferon (IFN- 47;) were measured at the site of infection and in draining lymph node T cells of TLR9(-/-) mice at the peak of susceptibility, suggesting that unlike observations in vitro, the parasite could induce DC activation leading to the development of Th1 cells in the absence of TLR9 expression. Taken together, these data show that TLR9 signaling is important for the early control of lesion development and parasite burden but is dispensable for the differentiation of Th1 cells secreting IFN- 47;, and the high levels of this cytokine are not sufficient to control early parasite replication following L. braziliensis infection.

Toll-like receptor 5 deficiency exacerbates cardiac injury and inflammation induced by myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion in the mouse.

Myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion (MIR) triggers a sterile inflammatory response important for myocardial healing, but which may also contribute to adverse ventricular remodelling. Such inflammation is initiated by molecular danger signals released by damaged myocardium, which induce innate immune responses by activating toll-like receptors (TLRs). Detrimental roles have been recently reported for TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4. The role of other TLRs is unknown. We therefore evaluated the role of TLR5, expressed at high level in the heart, in the development of myocardial damage and inflammation acutely triggered by MIR. TLR5-/- and wild-type (WT) mice were exposed to MIR (30 min ischaemia, 2 h reperfusion). We measured infarct size, markers of cardiac oxidative stress, myocardial phosphorylation state of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases and AKT, expression levels of chemokines and cytokines in the heart and plasma, as well as cardiac function by echography and conductance volumetry. TLR5-deficient mice had normal cardiac morphology and function under physiological conditions. After MIR, the absence of TLR5 promoted an increase in infarct size and myocardial oxidative stress. Lack of TLR5 fostered p38 phosphorylation, reduced AKT phosphorylation and markedly increased the expression of inflammatory cytokines, whereas it precipitated acute LV (left ventricle) dysfunction. Therefore, contrary to the detrimental roles of TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4 in the infarcted heart, TLR5 is important to limit myocardial damage, inflammation and functional compromise after MIR.

L’œstrogène : un rôle potentiel dans la modulation de l’activation pro-inflammatoire des cellules endothéliales vasculaires par la voie du Toll-Like Receptor 2

Grâce aux nombreuses études sur le sujet, nous savons qu’une stimulation inflammatoire vasculaire excessive entraîne un débalancement des fonctions homéostatiques de l’endothélium. Ce débalancement est à l’origine d’une dysfonction endothéliale définie comme étant l’étape clé contribuant au développement de l’athérosclérose. Le Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2) est impliqué dans l’activation cellulaire via la transcription des gènes liés à l’inflammation. Il reconnaît des molécules microbiennes mais également des facteurs endogènes non-infectieux tels que sécrétés par les tissus endommagés provenant de la dysfonction endothéliale. Ainsi, l’activation et la signalisation du TLR2 sont en étroite relation avec le développement de l’athérosclérose. Les études épidémiologiques ont confirmé le rôle athéroprotecteur de l’œstrogène via de nombreux mécanismes d’action. Ainsi, nous avons cherché à identifier de nouvelles cibles moléculaires permettant de mieux interpréter les bénéfices potentiels de l’œstrogène sur le système cardiaque. Pour la première fois chez les cellules endothéliales (CE) vasculaires de souris, nos travaux ont confirmé l’effet anti-inflammatoire de l’œstrogène via la diminution de l’expression et de l’activité du TLR2. Nous avons également déterminé l’influence de l’œstrogène sur le profil de la réponse inflammatoire de ce récepteur en mesurant les potentiels endothéliaux de migration et d’adhésion. De plus, nous avons caractérisé les voies de signalisation impliquées en démontrant l’influence négative de l’œstrogène sur la phosphorylation des kinases activées par le TLR2; illustrant l’interaction entre l’œstrogène et la signalisation de ce récepteur. Nos travaux amènent ainsi de nouvelles connaissances sur la régulation endothéliale du TLR2 et mettent en lumière les effets anti-inflammatoires et vasculaires rapides de l’œstrogène.

Rôle des récepteurs Toll-like et de la protéine adaptatrice MyD88 dans la régulation de l’hepcidine et le développement des hyposidérémies associées à l’inflammation

Le fer est un oligo-élément nécessaire pour le fonctionnement normal de toutes les cellules de l'organisme et joue un rôle essentiel dans de nombreuses fonctions biologiques. Cependant, le niveau de fer dans le corps doit être bien réglé, sinon la carence en fer entraine des divers états pathologiques tels que l'anémie et la diminution de l’immunité. D'autre part, une surcharge en fer potentialise la multiplication des germes, aggrave l’infection et la formation de radicaux libres ayant des effets toxiques sur les cellules et leurs composants, ce qui favorise les maladies cardio-vasculaires, l'inflammation et le cancer. L'hepcidine (HAMP), un régulateur négatif de l'absorption du fer, induit la dégradation de la ferroportine (FPN), le seul exportateur connu de fer ce qui réduit sa libération par les macrophages et inhibe son absorption gastro-intestinale. HAMP est synthétisé principalement par les hépatocytes, mais aussi par les macrophages. Cependant, il y a très peu de données sur la façon dont HAMP est régulé au niveau des macrophages. Plus récemment, nous avons constaté que l’induction de l’hepcidin dans le foie par le polysaccharide (LPS) est dépendante de la voie de signalisation médiée par « Toll-like receptor 4 » (TLR4). Grâce au TLR4, le LPS induit l'activation des macrophages qui sécrètent de nombreuses différentes cytokines inflammatoires, y compris Interleukine 6 (IL-6), responsable de l'expression de HAMP hépatique. Dans le premier chapitre de la présente étude, nous avons étudié la régulation de HAMP dans la lignée cellulaire macrophagique RAW264.7 et dans les macrophages péritonéaux murins stimulés par différents ligands des TLRs. Nous avons constaté que TLR2 et TLR4 par l'intermédiaire de la protéine adaptatrice « myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 » (MyD88) activent l'expression de HAMP dans les cellules RAW264.7 et les macrophages péritonéaux sauvages murins, tandis que cette expression a été supprimée dans les macrophages isolés des souris TLR2-/-, TLR4-déficiente ou MyD88-/-. En outre, nous avons constaté que la production d'IL-6 par les cellules RAW264.7 stimulées avec du LPS a été renforcée par l’ajout des quantités élevées de fer dans le milieu de culture. Au cours de l’inflammation, le niveau de HAMP est fortement augmenté. Ainsi, lorsque l'inflammation persiste, l’expression de HAMP continue à être activée par des cytokines pro-inflammatoires conduisant à une hyposidérémie. Malgré que cette dernière soit considérée comme une défense de l'hôte pour priver les micro-organismes de fer, celle ci cause un développement d'anémies nommées anémies des maladies chroniques. Ainsi, dans le deuxième chapitre de la présente étude, nous avons étudié l'implication des TLRs et leurs protéines adaptatrices MyD88 et TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) dans le développement des hyposidérémies. En utilisant des souris déficientes en MyD88 et TRIF, nous avons montré que les voies de signalisations MyD88 et TRIF sont essentielles pour l’induction de HAMP par le LPS. Malgré l'absence de HAMP, les souris déficientes ont été capables de développer une hyposidérémie, mais la réponse des souris déficientes en MyD88 a été très légère, ce qui indique l'exigence de cette protéine pour assurer une réponse maximale au LPS. En outre, nous avons constaté que la signalisation MyD88 est nécessaire pour le stockage du fer au niveau de la rate, ainsi que l'induction de lipocaline 2 (LCN2), qui est une protéine impliquée dans la fixation du fer pour limiter la croissance bactérienne. Indépendamment de MyD88 ou TRIF, l'activation de TLR4 et TLR3 a conduit, au niveau de la rate, à une diminution rapide de l’expression de FPN et du « Human hemochromatosis protein » (HFE) qui est une protéine qui limite la séquestration du fer cellulaire à partir de la circulation. Cependant, malgré cette baisse d’expression, le manque de la signalisation MyD88 a altéré de manière significative la réponse hyposidérémique. En établissant le rôle des TLRs et de la protéine adaptatrice MyD88 dans la diminution du taux du fer sérique au cours de la réponse inflammatoire, nous avons remarqué qu’en réponse au surcharge en fer les souris déficientes en MyD88 accumulent de manière significative plus de fer hépatique par rapport aux souris sauvages, et cela indépendamment des TLRs. Ainsi, dans le troisième chapitre de la présente étude, nous avons étudié le phénotype observé chez les souris déficientes en MyD88. Nous avons trouvé que l'expression de HAMP chez ces souris a été plus faible que celle des souris de type sauvage. Pour cela, nous avons exploré la signalisation à travers la voie du « Bone Morphogenetic Proteins 6 » (BMP6) qui est considérée comme étant la voie fondamentale de la régulation de HAMP en réponse aux concentrations du fer intracellulaires et extracellulaires et nous avons trouvé que l'expression protéique de Smad4, un régulateur positif de l'expression de HAMP, est significativement plus faible chez les souris MyD88-/- par rapport aux souris sauvages. En outre, on a montré que MyD88 interagit avec « mothers against decapentaplegic, Drosophila, homolog 4 » (Smad4) et que cette interaction est essentielle pour l’induction de HAMP à travers la voie BMP6. En conclusion, notre étude montre que l'expression de HAMP dans les macrophages est régulée principalement par TLR2 et TLR4 à travers la voie MyD88 et que l'accumulation du fer dans les macrophages peut affecter les niveaux des cytokines pro-inflammatoires. En outre, nos analyses démontrent que le développement d’hyposidérémie en réponse au LPS se produit par l'intermédiaire d’un mécanisme dépendant de MyD88 qui est dissociée de la production de cytokines et de HAMP. En plus, nos recherches montrent que MyD88 est nécessaire pour l'expression de Smad4 et cela pour garantir une réponse optimale à travers la signalisation BMP6, conduisant ainsi à une expression adéquate de HAMP. Enfin, la protéine MyD88 joue un rôle crucial dans, la régulation de HAMP au niveau des macrophages, la diminution du taux du fer sérique en réponse au LPS et le maintien de l'homéostasie du fer.

MicroRNA-3148 Modulates Allelic Expression of Toll-Like Receptor 7 Variant Associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

We previously reported that the G allele of rs3853839 at 3′untranslated region (UTR) of Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) was associated with elevated transcript expression and increased risk for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in 9,274 Eastern Asians [P = 6.5×10−10, odds ratio (OR) (95%CI) = 1.27 (1.17–1.36)]. Here, we conducted trans-ancestral fine-mapping in 13,339 subjects including European Americans, African Americans, and Amerindian/Hispanics and confirmed rs3853839 as the only variant within the TLR7-TLR8 region exhibiting consistent and independent association with SLE (Pmeta = 7.5×10−11, OR = 1.24 [1.18–1.34]). The risk G allele was associated with significantly increased levels of TLR7 mRNA and protein in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and elevated luciferase activity of reporter gene in transfected cells. TLR7 3′UTR sequence bearing the non-risk C allele of rs3853839 matches a predicted binding site of microRNA-3148 (miR-3148), suggesting that this microRNA may regulate TLR7 expression. Indeed, miR-3148 levels were inversely correlated with TLR7 transcript levels in PBMCs from SLE patients and controls (R2 = 0.255, P = 0.001). Overexpression of miR-3148 in HEK-293 cells led to significant dose-dependent decrease in luciferase activity for construct driven by TLR7 3′UTR segment bearing the C allele (P = 0.0003). Compared with the G-allele construct, the C-allele construct showed greater than two-fold reduction of luciferase activity in the presence of miR-3148. Reduced modulation by miR-3148 conferred slower degradation of the risk G-allele containing TLR7 transcripts, resulting in elevated levels of gene products. These data establish rs3853839 of TLR7 as a shared risk variant of SLE in 22,613 subjects of Asian, EA, AA, and Amerindian/Hispanic ancestries (Pmeta = 2.0×10−19, OR = 1.25 [1.20–1.32]), which confers allelic effect on transcript turnover via differential binding to the epigenetic factor miR-3148.

Toll-like receptor agonist lipopeptides self-assemble into distinct nanostructures

The self-assembled structure of toll-like receptor agonist lipopeptides containing the CSK4 peptide sequence is examined in aqueous solution. A remarkable dependence of morphology on the number of attached hexadecyl lipid chains is demonstrated, with spherical micelle structures for mono- and di-lipidated structures observed, but flexible wormlike micelles for the homologue containing three lipid chains. The distinct modes of assembly may have an important influence on the bioactivity of this class of lipopeptide.

Targeted activation of toll-like receptors: conjugation of a toll-like receptor 7 agonist to a monoclonal antibody maintains antigen binding and specificity

Therapeutic activation of Toll-like receptors (TLR) has potential for cancer immunotherapy, for augmenting the activity of anti-tumor monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), and for improved vaccine adjuvants. A previous attempt to specifically target TLR agonists to dendritic cells (DC) using mAbs failed because conjugation led to non-specific binding and mAbs lost specificity. We demonstrate here for the first time the successful conjugation of a small molecule TLR7 agonist to an anti-tumour mAb (the anti-hCD 20 rituximab) without compromising antigen specificity. The TLR7 agonist UC-1V150 was conjugated to rituximab using two conjugation methods and yield, molecular substitution ratio, retention of TLR7 activity and specificity of antigen binding were compared. Both conjugation methods produced rituximab-UC-1V150 conjugates with UC-1V150 : rituximab ratio ranging from 1:1 to 3:1 with drug loading quantified by UV spectroscopy and drug substitution ratio verified by MALDI TOF mass spectroscopy. The yield of purified conjugates varied with conjugation method, and dropped as low as 31% using a method previously described for conjugating UC-1V150 to proteins, where a bifunctional crosslinker was firstly reacted with rituximab, and secondly to the TLR7 agonist. We therefore developed a direct conjugation method by producing an amine-reactive UV active version of UC-1V150, termed NHS:UC-1V150. Direct conjugation with NHS:UC-1V150 was quick and simple and gave improved conjugate yields of 65-78%. Rituximab-UC-1V150 conjugates had the expected pro-inflammatory activity in vitro (EC50 28-53 nM) with a significantly increased activity over unconjugated UC-1V150 (EC50 547 nM). Antigen binding and specificity of the rituxuimab-UC-1V150 conjugates was retained, and after incubation with human peripheral blood leukocytes, all conjugates bound strongly only to CD20-expressing B cells whilst no non-specific binding to CD20-negative cells was observed. Selective targeting of Toll-like receptor activation directly within tumors or to DC is now feasible.