Trade and investment flows between the Caribbean and the rest of the hemisphere in the context of the FTAA

Includes bibliography

Tourism life cycle, tourism competitiveness and upgrading strategies in the Caribbean

In the 1980s Butler adapted the life cycle product model to the tourism industry and created the “Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model”. The model recognizes six stages in the tourism product life cycle: exploration, investment, development, consolidation, stagnation and followed, after stagnation, by decline or revitalization of the product. These six stages can in turn be regrouped into four main stages. The Butler model has been applied to more than 30 country cases with a wide degree of success. De Albuquerque and Mc Elroy (1992) applied the TALC model to 23 small Caribbean island States in the 1990s. Following De Albuquerque and Mc Elroy, the TALC is applied to the 32 member countries of the Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) (except for Cancun and Cozumel) to locate their positions along their tourism life-cycle in 2007. This is done using the following indicators: the evolution of the level, market share and growth rate of stay-over arrivals; the growth rate and market share of visitor expenditures per arrival and the tourism styles of the destinations, differentiating between ongoing mass tourism and niche marketing strategies and among upscale, mid-scale and low-scale destinations. Countries have pursued three broad classes of strategies over the last 15 years in order to move upward in their tourism life cycle and enhance their tourism competitiveness. There is first a strategy that continues to rely on mass-tourism to build on the comparative advantages of “sun, sand and sea”, scale economies, all-inclusive packages and large amounts of investment to move along in Stage 2 or Stage 3 (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico). There is a second strategy pursued mainly by very small islands that relies on developing specific niche markets to maintain tourism competitiveness through upgrading (Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos), allowing them to move from Stage 2 to Stage 3 or Stage 3 to a rejuvenation stage. There is a third strategy that uses a mix of mass-tourism, niche marketing and quality upgrading either to emerge onto the intermediate stage (Trinidad and Tobago); avoid decline (Aruba, The Bahamas) or rejuvenate (Barbados, Jamaica and the United States Virgin Islands). There have been many success stories in Caribbean tourism competitiveness and further research should aim at empirically testing the determinants of tourism competitiveness for the region as a whole.

Implementation of the 2014-2015 programme of work: subprogramme 13: subregional activities in the Caribbean

This report highlights the activities carried out by ECLAC in the Caribbean subregion between 1 January 2014 and 31 March 2015. Subprogramme 13 of the ECLAC programme of work 2014-2015 (“Subregional activities in the Caribbean”) covers the Commission’s work in Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago, as well as Anguilla, Aruba, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Sint Maarten, the Turks and Caicos Islands and the United States Virgin Islands. Subprogramme 12 (“Subregional activities in Central America, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico”) includes activities conducted in the Caribbean member States of Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti. In addition, countries of the Caribbean were included in activities organized under the 12 other substantive subprogrammes of the ECLAC programme of work 2014-2015, namely: (i) linkages with the global economy, integration and regional cooperation; (ii) production and innovation; (iii) macroeconomic policies and growth; (iv) financing for development; (v) social development and equality; (vi) mainstreaming the gender perspective in regional development; (vii) population and development; (viii) sustainable development and human settlements; (ix) natural resources and infrastructure; (x) planning of public administration; (xi) statistics; and (xii) support for regional and subregional integration and cooperation processes and organizations.

Biomarker responses as indication of contaminant effects in Oreochromis niloticus

The current study investigated oxidative stress parameters (enzymes activities, metallothionein content and lipid peroxidation) in freshwater fish, Oreochromis niloticus, tilapia exposure to Monjolinho River (in 4 months of year: January, April, July and November). One critical site in Monjolinho River (site B) was assessed in comparison to a reference site (site A). Water pH and oxygen concentration was lower than that recommended by CONAMA (Brazilian National Environmental Committee), resolution 357/2005 for protection of aquatic communities, and ammonium and the metals Cu, Zn, Mn and Fe (on all months) concentrations were higher than the maximum concentration recommended. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were significantly decreased in liver and muscle in tila. pia from Monjolinho River, throughout the year, in relation to reference except in gills that SOD activity increased. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was significantly increased in liver of the tilapia from Monjolinho River in all sites, in relation to reference except in gills that GST activity increased in July and decreased in November, suggesting that GST activity could be induced to neutralize the pollutants toxicity. On the other hand, GST activity was significantly decreased in white muscle indicating a toxic effect of pollutants, resulting in a decreased ability of tilapia to perform defense reactions associated to GSTs. The decrease of catalase (CAT) activity in gills of the O. niloticus together with the increase of SOD activity, could explain the increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) level in this organ. Metallothionein levels in liver and gills were significantly high in all sites. Results indicate that the exposure to metals caused severe damage to tissues; despite the consensually assumed antioxidant induction as a sign of exposure to contaminants the effects seem in part to be mediated by suppression of antioxidant system with SOD, CAT and GPx as potential candidates for tissues toxicity biomarkers of pollutants. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessment of trophic transfer of benzo(a)pyrene genotoxicity from the post-larval pink shrimp F. brasiliensis to the juvenile Florida pompano T. carolinus

In the present study, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) genotoxicity was investigated in a one-step predator-prey relationship with the trophic-related marine species. Florida pompanos were fed for 5 and 10 days with pink shrimp post larvae previously exposed to benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) concentrations. Parent BaP body burden was measured in samples of Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis. BaP metabolites were determined in bile samples of Trachinotus carolinus and DNA damage was assessed through the comet and erythrocyte nuclear abnormalities (ENAs) assays in fish erythrocytes. BaP body burden increased significantly with the PAH concentration in pink shrimp PLs as well as the fish bile BaP metabolites. Both, comet and ENAs assays indicated significant increase on erythrocyte DNA damage of Florida pompanos fed with BaP-exposed pink shrimp on both feeding periods. The trophic route of BaP genotoxicity is discussed as well as the PAH biotransformation as the inducing mechanism for the DNA damages observed.

EROD activity and genotoxicity in the seabob shrimp Xiphopenaeus kroyeri exposed to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) concentrations

Seabob shrimp Xiphopenaeus kroyeri is a marine species that lives in shallow waters of coastal environments, often impacted by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) pollution. In the present study, seabob shrimp were exposed for 96 h to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) at the nominal concentrations of 100, 200, 400 and 800 microg.L-1. Animals of the control groups were exposed either to clean water or to the BaP-carrier (DMSO). At the end of the exposures, muscle tissues were sampled for BaP uptake assessment and hepatopancreas and hemolymph for EROD enzyme activity and hemocytes DNA damage, respectively. EROD activity and DNA damage increased significantly as a function of BaP exposure concentrations. Significant correlations between BaP uptake and both EROD activity and DNA damage suggest that they can be used as suitable tools for integrated levels of study on the biomarkers of PAH exposure.

Antioxidant defenses and biochemical changes in the neotropical fish pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus: Responses to single and combined copper and hypercarbia exposure

This study investigated the potentially detrimental effects of copper and elevated aquatic CO2 (hypercarbia), alone or in combination, on pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus. Fish were exposed for 48 h to control (no copper addition in normocarbia), to 400 mu g Cu2+L-1, to hypercarbic (1% CO2; PCO2=6.9 mm Hg) water and to 400 mu g Cu2+L-1+ hypercarbia. In liver the single factors caused an increase in lipid hydroperoxide concentration that was not observed when the factors were combined. Copper exposure elicited increased hepatic superoxide dismutase activity, irrespective of aquatic CO2 level. On the other hand, the effects of copper on hepatic glutathione peroxidase activity were dependent on water CO2 levels. The two stressors combined did not affect hepatic catalase activity. Hypercarbic water caused a decline in plasma glucose concentration, but this was not observed when hypercarbia was combined with copper exposure. Copper caused a decrease in branchial Na+/K+-ATPase activity that was independent of water CO2 level. Copper caused an increase in branchial metallothionein concentration that was independent of water CO2 level. Thus, branchial metallothionein and Na+/K+-ATPase were effective biomarkers of copper exposure that were not affected by water CO2 level. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Diencephalic asymmetries: morphological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analysis of habenular nuclei in elasmobranchs and teleosts

The habenular nuclei are diencephalic structures present in Vertebrates and they form, with the associated fiber systems, a part of the system that connects the telencephalon to the ventral mesencephalon (Concha M. L. and Wilson S. W., 2001). In representative species of almost all classes of Vertebrates the habenular nuclei are asymmetric, both in terms of size and of neuronal and neurochemical organization, although different types of asymmetry follow different evolutionary courses. Previous studies have analyzed the spread and diversity of the asymmetry in species for which data are not clear (Kemali M. et al., 1980). Notwithstanding that, it’s still not totally understood the evolution of the phenomenon, and the ontogenetic mechanisms that have led to the habenular asymmetry development are not clear (Smeets W.J. et al., 1983). For the present study 14 species of Elasmobranchs and 15 species of Teleostean have been used. Brains removed from the animals have been fixed using 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffer; brains have been analyzed with different tecniques, and I used histological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analysis to describe this asymmetry. My results confirm data previously obtained studying other Elasmobranchs species, in which the left habenula is larger than the right one; the Teleostean show some slightly differences regarding the size of the habenular ganglia, in some species, in which the left habenular nucleus is larger than the right. In the course of studies, a correlation between the habits of life and the diencephalic asymmetry seems to emerge: among the Teleostean analyzed, the species with benthic life (like Lepidorhombus boscii, Platichthys flesus, Solea vulgaris) seem to possess a slight asymmetry, analogous to the one of the Elasmobranchs, while in the other species (like Liza aurata, Anguilla anguilla, Trisopterus minutus) the habenulae are symmetrical. However, various aspects of the neuroanatomical asymmetries of the epithalamus have not been deepened in order to obtain a complete picture of the evolution of this phenomenon, and new searches are needed to examine the species without clear asymmetry, in order to understand the spread and the diversity of the asymmetry among the habenulae between the Vertebrates.

Male Dominance in the New Zealand Longfin Eel Population of a New Zealand River: Probable Causes and Implications for Management

The endemic New Zealand longfin eel Anguilla dieffenbachi (hereafter, longfin eel), is overfished, and in southern South Island, New Zealand, rivers have recently become predominated by males. This study examined length and age at sexual differentiation in male eels in the Aparima River catchment (area, 1,375 km(2); mean flow, 20 m(3.)s(-1)) and the sex ratio and distribution of eels throughout the catchment. Longfin eels differentiated into males mostly at lengths from 300 to 460 mm and ages from 10 to 25+ years. Females were rare: Of 738 eels examined for sexual differentiation, 466 were males and 5 were females, and a few others, not examined, were large enough to be female. These counts suggest a male : female ratio among differentiated longfin eels of 68:1. Of 31 differentiated shortfin eels A. australis, less common in the Aparima River, 26 were females. Male longfin eels were distributed throughout the main stern and tributaries; undifferentiated eels were more prevalent in lower and middle reaches and in the main stem than in upper reaches and tributaries. In other studies, male longfin eels predominated commercial catches in the Aparima and four other southernmost rivers, by 2.4:1 to 13.6:1 males to females. The Aparima River had the most skewed sex ratio. Longfin eel catches from the Aparima River will become more male predominated because few sublegal-size females were present. The length-frequency distributions of eels in the present samples and in the commercial catches were truncated just above minimum legal size (about 460 mm), showing that few females escape the fishery. Historically, females predominated these rivers. The recent change in sex ratio is attributable partly to selective harvest of females, and partly to changes in the structure of the population from fishing, such that differentiation into males has been favored. Longevity, delayed sexual maturity, semel-parity, and endemism with restricted range make the longfin eel particularly vulnerable to overfishing.

Simulation of the Impact of Dams and Fishing Weirs on Reproductive Potential of Silver-Phase American Eels in the Kennebec River Basin, Maine

I modeled the cumulative impact of hydroelectric projects with and without commercial fishing weirs and water-control dams on the production, survival to the sea, and potential fecundity of migrating female silver-phase American eels, Anguilla rostrata in the Kennebec River basin, Maine, This river basin has 22 hydroelectric projects, 73 water-control dams, and 15 commercial fishing weir sites. The modeled area included an 8,324 km(2) segment of the drainage area between Merrymeeting Bay and the upper limit of American eel distribution in the basin. One set of input,, (assumed or real values) concerned population structure (Le., population density and sex ratio changes throughout the basin, female length-class distribution, and drainage area between dams), Another set concerned factors influencing survival and potential fecundity of migrating American eels (i.e., pathway sequences through projects, survival rate per project by length-class. and length-fecundity relationship). Under baseline conditions about 402,400 simulated silver female American eels would be produced annually reductions in their numbers due to dams and weirs would reduce the realized fecundity (i.e., the number of eggs produced by all females that survived the migration). Without weirs or water-control dams, about 63% of the simulated silverphase American eels survived their freshwater spawning migration run to the sea when the survival rate at each hydroelectric dam was 9017, 40% survived at 80% survival per dam, and 18% survived at 60% survival per dam. Removing the lowermost hydroelectric dam on the Kennebec River increased survival by 6.0-7.6% for the basin. The efficient commercial weirs reduced survival to the sea to 69-76%( of what it would have been without weirs', regardless of survival rates at hydroelectric dams. Water-control dams had little impact on production in this basin because most were located in the upper reaches of tributaries. Sensitivity analysis led to the conclusion that small changes in population density and female length distribution had greater effects on survival and realized fecundity than similar changes in turbine survival rate. The latter became more important as turbine survival rate decreased. Therefore, it might be more fruitful to determine population distribution in basins of interest than to determine mortality rate at each hydroelectric project.

Sexually Different Growth Histories of the American Eel in Four Rivers in Maine

Growth histories of yellow-phase American eels Anguilla rostrata collected in four rivers in Maine, were back-calculated from sagittal otolith increments. Our objectives were to first determine whether sexually dimorphic growth rates exist and then compare the growth histories of American eels from four rivers within a geographic region. For female eels, the maximum growth rate was 31.9 +/- 1.7 mm/year at age 8, decreasing to 25.1 +/- 2.9 mm/year at age 14. Males attained a maximum of 29.8 +/- 1.6 min/year at age 3, decreasing to a minimum of 17.9 +/- 1.3 mm/year at age 11. Females grew faster than males after age 4 and had a slower reduction in growth rate with age. These faster growth rates among females were similar in all four rivers. The observed growth rates are not consistent with current life history hypotheses and may indicate an alternative life history strategy. Because female eels benefit from a larger size (i.e., size refuge, increased fecundity, and greater niche breadth), they would benefit from a higher-risk growth strategy that increases growth rate during their earlier years and reduces the amount of time spent in an unfavorable size-class. The tradeoffs (i.e., mortality, developmental rate, pathogen resistance, and longevity) associated with this faster growth rate may not favor the males' life history requirements. Male eels do not achieve the size of females and therefore are not subject to the advantages associated with being larger. Therefore, they may use a risk-averse strategy that maintains submaximum growth rates to obtain the minimum size necessary to mature and complete the spawning migration while reducing the adverse affects of faster growth rates. We postulate that, in eels, intrinsic growth rates should be considered a life history trait that has evolved to meet the life history requirements of each sex.