999 resultados para Variabilidade Genética


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This paper deals with problems on population genetics in Hymenoptera and particularly in social Apidae. 1) The studies on populations of Hymenoptera were made according to the two basic types of reproduction: endogamy and panmixia. The populations of social Apinae have a mixed method of reproduction with higher percentage of panmixia and a lower of endogamy. This is shown by the following a) males can enter any hive in swarming time; b) males of Meliponini are expelled from hives which does not need them, and thus, are forced to look for some other place; c) Meliponini males were seen powdering themselves with pollen, thus becoming more acceptable in any other hive. The panmixia is not complete owing to the fact that the density of the breeding population as very low, even in the more frequent species as low as about 2 females and 160 males per reproductive area. We adopted as selection values (or survival indices) the expressions according to Brieger (1948,1950) which may be summarised as follows; a population: p2AA + ²pq Aa + q2aa became after selection: x p2AA + 2pq Aa + z q²aa. For alge-braics facilities Brieger divided the three selective values by y giving thus: x/y p2 AA + y/y 2 pq Aa + z/y q²aa. He called x/y of RA and z/y of Ra, that are survival or selective index, calculated in relation to the heterozygote. In our case all index were calculated in relation to the heterozygote, including the ones for haploid males; thus we have: RA surveval index of genotype AA Ra surveval index of genotype aa R'A surveval index of genotype A R'a surveval index of genotype a 1 surveval index of genotype Aa The index R'A ande R'a were equalized to RA and Ra, respectively, for facilities in the conclusions. 2) Panmitic populations of Hymenoptera, barring mutations, migrations and selection, should follow the Hardy-Weinberg law, thus all gens will be present in the population in the inicial frequency (see Graphifc 1). 3) Heterotic genes: If mutation for heterotic gene ( 1 > RA > Ra) occurs, an equilibrium will be reached in a population when: P = R A + Ra - 2R²a _____________ (9) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a q = R A + Ra - 2R²A _____________ (10) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a A heterotic gene in an hymenopteran population may be maintained without the aid of new mutation only if the survival index of the most viable mutant (RA) does not exced the limiting value given by the formula: R A = 1 + √1+Ra _________ 4 If RA has a value higher thah the one permitted by the formula, then only the more viable gene will remain present in the population (see Graphic 10). The only direct proof for heterotic genes in Hymenoptera was given by Mackensen and Roberts, who obtained offspring from Apis mellefera L. queens fertilized by their own sons. Such inbreeding resulted in a rapid loss of vigor the colony; inbred lines intercrossed gave a high hybrid vigor. Other fats correlated with the "heterosis" problem are; a) In a colony M. quadrifasciata Lep., which suffered severely from heat, the percentage of deths omong males was greater .than among females; b) Casteel and Phillips had shown that in their samples (Apis melifera L). the males had 7 times more abnormalities tian the workers (see Quadros IV to VIII); c) just after emerging the males have great variation, but the older ones show a variation equal to that of workers; d) The tongue lenght of males of Apis mellifera L., of Bombus rubicundus Smith (Quadro X), of Melipona marginata Lep. (Quadro XI), and of Melipona quadrifasciata Lep. Quadro IX, show greater variationthan that of workers of the respective species. If such variation were only caused by subviables genes a rapid increasse of homozigoty for the most viable alleles should be expected; then, these .wild populations, supposed to be in equilibrium, could .not show such variability among males. Thus we conclude that heterotic genes have a grat importance in these cases. 4) By means of mathematical models, we came to the conclusion tht isolating genes (Ra ^ Ra > 1), even in the case of mutations with more adaptability, have only the opor-tunity of survival when the population number is very low (thus the frequency of the gene in the breeding population will be large just after its appearence). A pair of such alleles can only remain present in a population when in border regions of two races or subspecies. For more details see Graphics 5 to 8. 5) Sex-limited genes affecting only females, are of great importance toHymenoptera, being subject to the same limits and formulas as diploid panmitic populations (see formulas 12 and 13). The following examples of these genes were given: a) caste-determining genes in the genus Melipona; b) genes permiting an easy response of females to differences in feeding in almost all social Hymenoptera; c) two genes, found in wild populations, one in Trigona (Plebéia) mosquito F. SMITH (quadro XII) and other in Melipona marginata marginata LEP. (Quadro XIII, colonies 76 and 56) showing sex-limited effects. Sex-limited genes affecting only males do not contribute to the plasticity or genie reserve in hymenopteran populations (see formula 14). 6) The factor time (life span) in Hymenoptera has a particular importance for heterotic genes. Supposing one year to be the time unit and a pair of heterotic genes with respective survival indice equal to RA = 0, 90 and Ra = 0,70 to be present; then if the life time of a population is either one or two years, only the more viable gene will remain present (see formula 11). If the species has a life time of three years, then both alleles will be maintained. Thus we conclude that in specis with long lif-time, the heterotic genes have more importance, and should be found more easily. 7) The colonies of social Hymenoptera behave as units in competition, thus in the studies of populations one must determine the survival index, of these units which may be subdivided in indice for egg-laying, for adaptive value of the queen, for working capacity of workers, etc. 8) A study of endogamic hymenopteran populations, reproduced by sister x brother mating (fig. 2), lead us to the following conclusions: a) without selection, a population, heterozygous for one pair of alleles, will consist after some generations (theoretically after an infinite number of generation) of females AA fecundated with males A and females aa fecundated with males a (see Quadro I). b) Even in endogamic population there is the theoretical possibility of the presence of heterotic genes, at equilibrium without the aid of new mutations (see Graphics 11 and 12), but the following! conditions must be satisfied: I - surveval index of both homozygotes (RA e Ra) should be below 0,75 (see Graphic 13); II - The most viable allele must riot exced the less viable one by more than is permited by the following formula (Pimentel Gomes 1950) (see Gra-fic 14) : 4 R5A + 8 Ra R4A - 4 Ra R³A (Ra - 1) R²A - - R²a (4 R²a + 4 Ra - 1) R A + 2 R³a < o Considering these two conditions, the existance of heterotic genes in endogamic populations of Hymenoptera \>ecames very improbable though not - impossible. 9) Genie mutation offects more hymenopteran than diploid populations. Thus we have for lethal genes in diploid populations: u = q2, and in Hymenoptera: u = s, being u the mutation ratio and s the frequency of the mutant in the male population. 10) Three factors, important to competition among species of Meliponini were analysed: flying capacity of workers, food gathering capacity of workers, egg-laying of the queen. In this connection we refer to the variability of the tongue lenght observed in colonies from several localites, to the method of transporting the pollen in the stomach, from some pots (Melliponi-ni storage alveolus) to others (e. g. in cases of pillage), and to the observation that the species with the most populous hives are almost always the most frequent ones also. 11) Several defensive ways used for Meliponini to avoid predation are cited, but special references are made upon the camouflage of both hive (fig. 5) and hive entrance (fig. 4) and on the mimetism (see list in page ). Also under the same heading we described the method of Lestrimelitta for pillage. 12) As mechanisms important for promoting genetic plasticity of hymenopteran species we cited: a) cytological variations and b) genie reserve. As to the former, duplications and numerical variations of chromosomes were studied. Diprion simile ATC was cited as example for polyploidy. Apis mellife-ra L. (n •= 16) also sugests polyploid origen since: a) The genus Melipona, which belongs to a" related tribe, presents in all species so far studied n = 9 chromosomes and b) there occurs formation of dyads in the firt spermatocyte division. It is su-gested that the origin of the sex-chromosome of Apis mellifera It. may be related to the possible origin of diplo-tetraploidy in this species. With regards to the genie reserve, several possible types of mutants were discussed. They were classified according to their survival indices; the heterotic and neutral mutants must be considered as more important for the genie reserve. 13) The mean radius from a mother to a daghter colony was estimated as 100 meters. Since the Meliponini hives swarm only once a year we may take 100 meters a year as the average dispersion of female Meliponini in ocordance to data obtained from Trigona (tetragonisca) jaty F. SMITH and Melipona marginata LEP., while other species may give different values. For males the flying distance was roughly estimated to be 10 times that for females. A review of the bibliography on Meliponini swarm was made (pg. 43 to 47) and new facts added. The population desity (breeding population) corresponds in may species of Meliponini to one male and one female per 10.000 square meters. Apparently the males are more frequent than the females, because there are sometimes many thousands, of males in a swarm; but for the genie frequency the individuals which have descendants are the ones computed. In the case of Apini and Meliponini, only one queen per hive and the males represented by. the spermatozoos in its spermateca are computed. In Meliponini only one male mate with the queen, while queens of Apis mellijera L. are fecundated by an average of about 1, 5 males. (Roberts, 1944). From the date cited, one clearly sees that, on the whole, populations of wild social bees (Meliponini) are so small that the Sewall Wright effect may become of great importance. In fact applying the Wright's formula: f = ( 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) (1 - 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) which measures the fixation and loss of genes per generation, we see that the fixation or loss of genes is of about 7% in the more frequent species, and rarer species about 11%. The variation in size, tergite color, background color, etc, of Melipona marginata Lep. is atributed to this genetic drift. A detail, important to the survival of Meliponini species, is the Constance of their breeding population. This Constance is due to the social organization, i. e., to the care given to the reproductive individuals (the queen with its sperm pack), to the way of swarming, to the food storage intended to control variations of feeding supply, etc. 14) Some species of the Meliponini are adapted to various ecological conditions and inhabit large geographical areas (e. g. T. (Tetragonisca jaty F. SMITH), and Trigona (Nanno-trigona testaceicornis LEP.) while others are limited to narrow regions with special ecological conditions (e. g. M. fuscata me-lanoventer SCHWARZ). Other species still, within the same geographical region, profit different ecological conditions, as do M. marginata LEP. and M. quadrifasciata LEP. The geographical distribution of Melipona quadrifasciata LEP. is different according to the subspecies: a) subsp anthidio-des LEP. (represented in Fig. 7 by black squares) inhabits a region fron the North of the S. Paulo State to Northeastern Brazil, ,b) subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., (marked in Fig. 7 with black triangles) accurs from the South of S. Paulo State to the middle of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (South Brazil). In the margined region between these two areas of distribution, hi-brid colonies were found (Fig. 7, white circles); they are shown with more details in fig. 8, while the zone of hybridization is roughly indicated in fig. 9 (gray zone). The subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., has 4 complete yellow bands on the abdominal tergites while anthidioides LEP. has interrupted ones. This character is determined by one or two genes and gives different adaptative properties to the subspecies. Figs. 10 shows certains meteorological isoclines which have aproximately the same configuration as the limits of the hybrid zone, suggesting different climatic adaptabilities for both genotypes. The exis-tance of a border zone between the areas of both subspecies, where were found a high frequency of hybrids, is explained as follows: being each subspecies adapted to a special climatic zone, we may suppose a poor adaptation of either one in the border region, which is also a region of intermediate climatic conditions. Thus, the hybrids, having a combination of the parent qualities, will be best adapted to the transition zone. Thus, the hybrids will become heterotic and an equilibrium will be reached with all genotypes present in the population in the border region.

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A Murcha de Fusarium em tomateiro não está sendo eficientemente controlada no Estado de São Paulo, devido a falta de variedades resistentes, adequadas ao mercado. Como na produção destas, variedades resistentes é necessário um estudo sôbre a variabilidade do fango quanto a raças fisiológicas os autores pesquisaram 48 linhagens de Fusarium coletados em todo o Estado de São Paulo e através de testes em variedades diferenciais Bonny Best., Santa Cruz (Kobayashi) e S-34 em condições de casa de vegetação com contrôle parcial de temperatura e inoculaçôes artificiais. Concluiram que das 48 linhagens estudadas uma desta apresentava reação de raça 2 as demais 47 a da raça 1 sendo possível reparar as linhagens pelo gráu de patogenicidade.

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O presente trabalho trata do estudo da variabilidade do fungo, Stemphylium solani Weber, agente causal da Mancha Foliar do tomateiro (Lycopersicum esculentun Mill.), "Mancha de Estemfilium" que está se tornando cada vez mais importante em tôda área, onde se cultiva o tomateiro. Os autores isolaram 33 culturas de S. solani, de 12 municípios do Estado de São Paulo e estudaram suas capacidades de esporulação em meio de cultura. O modo de esporulação dos isolamentos variou bastante e reisolamentos e repicagens sucessivas mostraram que todos os isolamentos mantiveramas características culturais originais. Dois isolamentos (T-347 e T-419) comportaram-se de maneira bastante diferente dos demais isolamentos. Assim, êstes esporulavam espontânea e abundantemente em quaisquer meios, e nos testes de patogenicidade em tomateiro da variedade Santa Cruz, mostraram possuir elevada patogenicidade, que também confirmada estatìsticamente. Com base na capacidade de esporular em meios de cultura, patogenicidade em tomateiro suscetível e estabilidade das características culturais, os autores propuseram a classificação de S. solani, em 3 raças fisiológicas e discutem sua importância na interpretação de dados divergentes da literatura. Além disso, chamam a atenção para as culturas patogênicas capazes de esporular espontâneamente no meio de batata-dextroseagar e suas aplicações nos trabalhos de melhoramento do tomateiro.

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No presente trabalho foi determinada a variabilidade de X. malvacearum, em condições de casa de vegetação, baseando-se na reação dos hospedeiros diferenciais para raças fisiológicas do patógeno. A técnica de inoculação empregada foi a de riscos feitos na página inferior das folhas e para avaliação dos sintomas foi adotada uma escala que variou de 1 a 5. Foi detectada a ocorrência das raças fisiológicas 3, 8 e 10. A linhagem do algodoeiro IAC RM3-4133 71/523 foi resistente à raça fisiológica 3, enquanto que as linhagens (Acala x Nu.16) 71/213 e IAC 12-2 71/170 foram resistentes às raças 3, 8 e 10.

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O objetivo deste trabalho é verificar a variação diária da zonação da macrofauna bentônica nas praias de Tramandaí, Harmonia e Jardim do Éden, Rio Grande do Sul. As coletas foram feitas ao longo de cinco dias consecutivos, utilizando-se um tubo de PVC de 20 cm de diâmetro. Foram demarcadas três transversais distantes 50 m uma da outra, com 4 estações de coleta e três amostras cada. As estações se estenderam desde 8 m acima do limite superior da zona de varrido (definida a cada dia) até 1 m de profundidade. Também foram coletados diariamente dados dos perfis topográficos de cada praia. Os resultados mostraram que a macrofauna bentônica apresenta um padrão de zonação regular ao longo dos dias. O intermareal foi marcado pela presença do isópode Excirolana armata (Dana, 1853) e do poliqueta Euzonus furciferus (Ehlers, 1897). A zona de varrido apresentou grande abundância do caranguejo hipídeo Emerita brasiliensis (Schmitt, 1935), do bivalvo Donax hanleyanus (Philippi, 1842) e do poliqueto Scolelepis gaucha (Orensanz & Gianuca, 1974). As zonas de "surf" e arrebentação interna não apresentaram diferenças na composição de espécies, sendo dominantes os juvenis de D. hanleyanus, Mesodesma mactroides (Deshayes, 1854), o anfípode Phoxocephalopsis zimmeri (Schellenberg, 1931), o poliqueto Hemipodus olivieri (Orensanz & Gianuca, 1974), além do bivalve Donax gemmula (Morrison, 1971). Os resultados indicaram que, apesar do padrão de zonação da macrofauna ter sido regular ao longo do estudo, algumas mudanças na posição vertical das espécies foram observadas, principalmente em função da variação da zona de varrido.

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Este trabalho avalia a variabilidade espaço-temporal da meiofauna do médiolitoral na praia de Ajuruteua, Estado do Pará. As coletas foram realizadas a cada dois meses, entre abril de 2003 a fevereiro de 2004 durante as marés de sizígia, em diferentes zonas da praia. As amostras foram retiradas com um amostrador cilíndrico de 3,14 cm² e fixadas em formalina salina a 5%. Em laboratório, as amostras foram passadas em malha de 0,063 mm de abertura e os organismos retidos identificados em nível de grandes grupos taxonômicos, contados e fixados em álcool etílico a 70%. A meiofauna esteve representada por oito grupos: Turbellaria, Nematoda, Tardigrada, Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Acari, adultos de Copepoda Harpacticoida e juvenis de Copepoda Harpacticoida. Nematoda foi o grupo dominante, representando 74% do total de indivíduos, seguido de Copepoda (19%). Pôde-se observar clara zonação horizontal da fauna, que se distribuiu em três faixas paralelas à linha de praia, com características significativamente distintas quanto à abundância, riqueza e densidade dos principais grupos taxonômicos. No médiolitoral médio foram observados valores significativamente mais elevados de riqueza e abundância, enquanto os valores mais baixos foram registrados no médiolitoral superior e inferior. A comunidade de meiofauna, ainda que não tenha variado significativamente entre períodos climáticos, foi mais rica e abundante nos meses secos. Os principais fatores responsáveis pelas variações espaço-temporais da meiofauna foram a ação das ondas e das marés e as variações na salinidade da água.

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El objetivo general del proyecto ha sido profundizar en el conocimiento de diversos criterios morfofisiológicos de interés para la selección del trigo duro en ambiente mediterráneo y la evaluación del impacto que la mejora de la productividad ha ejercido sobre los mismos. El grado de consecución de los objetivos específicos en los que estaba involucrado nuestro subproyecto se detalla a continuación.

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Existeixen creixents evidències què la resposta dels limfòcits T CD8+ alpha beta citotòxics (CTLs) és un element fonamental en la infecció produïda pel VIH. Les CTLs VIH especifiques es consideren molt importants en la reducció de la càrrega viral i en la contenció de la infecció. Encara que la combinació dels antiretrovirals (HAART) ha suposat una millora considerable en la lluita contra el VIH induint una important reducció de la càrrega viral i augmentant el nombre de cèl•lules T CD4+, diverses complicacions han fet ressaltar la necessitat de noves alternatives terapèutiques. Les complicacions inclouen: manca de recuperació d’una resposta immune sòlida contra el VIH, toxicitat a llarg termini de la teràpia i el descobriment que les cèl•lules T CD4+ constitueixen un reservori pel virus. Les noves alternatives controlaran la replicació viral i reconstituiran la immunitat. L’eficàcia de la immunoteràpia cel•lular amb transferència adoptiva de CTLs virals específics s’ha provat en diferents infeccions virals humanes, incloent el VIH. Proposem una modificació de la immunoteràpia adoptiva redirigint l’especificitat de les cèl•lules T contra el VIH mitjançant la transfecció dels gens del TCR. En aquest assaig preclínic, ens aprofitarem de la tecnologia dels animals transgènics per les molècules de HLA, amb la finalitat de generar TCRs d’alta afinitat dirigits contra epitops del VIH restringits per la molècula HLA. Aquests TCRs seran induïts in vivo i seleccionats in vitro. Les cadenes alpha i beta dels TCRs VIH específics procedents de les CTLs seran clonades mitjançant tècniques de biologia molecular. Aquests TCRs VIH específics seran transferits a cèl•lules T CD8+ humanes i la seva especificitat i capacitat citolítica contra cèl•lules diana que presentin antígens de VIH-1 s’estudiaran mitjançant la combinació de diverses tècniques noves (FCC, transfecció mitjançant Nucleoefector). Finalment, una construcció retroviral adient per la seva transducció en cèl•lules T humanes s’establirà amb un TCR òptim seleccionat.

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Um estudo preliminar mostrou que Biomphalaria glabrata infectadas com cepas de Schistosoma mansoni isoladas de pacientes com a forma hepatoesplênica da doença produziam proporcionalmente maior número de cercárias e morriam mais precocemente que as infectadas com cepas isoladas da forma intestinal e hepatointestinal, entretanto, em contagens posteriores verificou-se uma grande variabilidade de cercárias no mesmo sistema, independente da forma clínica da origem das amostras.

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Estudi realitzat a partir d’una estada a la Università degli Studi di Firenze, Itàlia, durant juliol i agost del 2007. Des de un punt de vista teòric, l’estudi de l’abundància i distribució de les espècies a escala regional és un dels objectius principals de l’ecologia de poblacions i comunitats, i és imprescindible per a adoptar polítiques de conservació i de gestió de la biodiversitat. En aquest context, la persistència i abundància de les espècies a llarg termini front al canvi global depèn de la capacitat de migració i colonització (flux gènic), i de l’ existència de potencial evolutiu a les poblacions locals per a adaptar-se als canvis ambientals. Dispersió i potencial evolutiu, es troben íntimament relacionats. El coneixement bàsic sobre aquests aspectes resulta particularment important en el context biogeogràfic mediterrani, extremadament ric en espècies i subjecte històricament a canvis ambientals com a conseqüència de l’activitat humana. L’objectiu general del nostre grup de recerca és aprofundir en el coneixement de les causes de l’àrea de distribució i del grau de fragmentació de les espècies vegetals mediterrànies, així com les seves conseqüències ecològiques i evolutives. Concretament, determinar el potencial evolutiu i la presència d’adaptacions locals en funció de la distribució geogràfica i del grau de fragmentació. En el cas del teix (T.baccata) el projecte que s’està duent a terme pretén estudiar la distribució de la diversitat genètica de l’espècie i analitzar quins són els processos històrics, evolutius i ecològics que la condicionen. És amb aquest objectiu que es vol realitzar una caracterització de la seva variabilitat genètica utilitzant marcadors moleculars basats en els polimorfismes de l'ADN nuclear, anomenats microsatèl•lits nuclears.

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Els tractaments actuals per a la Malaltia de Crohn es basen en l’administració de proteïnes recombinants amb capacitat immunosupressora. Aquests tractaments són sistèmics, crònics i causen el desenvolupament d’efectes secundaris severs com infeccions amb patògens oportunistes i una major incidència de tumors. Passar d’una administració sistèmica dels immunosupressors a una administració local sembla clau per evitar la severitat i el nombre de complicacions secundàries. Ha sigut descrit recentment que el subconjunt cel•lular Th-17 juga un paper central en moltes malalties autoimmunes en humans, com ara la Malaltia de Crohn, Escleroderma, Artritis reumatoide o Psoriasis. Per determinar com la via del Th-17 es veu afectada durant el desenvolupament i els estadis aguts de la malaltia, analitzarem una gran bateria de interleuquines/citoquines i els mecanismes intracel•lulars d’activació/inhibició de l’activitat de les cèl•lules del Sistema Immune. En un segon pas, clonarem els gens seleccionats relacionats amb la immunomodulació de la via del Th-17 en vectors recentment desenvolupats (adenovirus quimera 5/40 o diferents pseudotips d’AAVs ), ja que hipotitzem que una producció local d’immunomoduladors s’assolirà amb una eficiència major fent servir aquests vectors, evitant així els efectes secundaris. A aquests efectes, hem començat el projecte clonant els gens de la IL10 i del receptor transmembrenal de la IL23 en adenovirus i en genomes d’AAV.