Iodine speciation in atmospheric aerosols in the marine boundary layer

Iodine chemistry plays an important role in the tropospheric ozone depletion and the new particle formation in the Marine Boundary Layer (MBL). The sources, reaction pathways, and the sinks of iodine are investigated using lab experiments and field observations. The aims of this work are, firstly, to develop analytical methods for iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples especially for iodine speciation in the soluble iodine; secondly, to apply the analytical methods in field collected aerosol samples, and to estimate the characteristics of aerosol iodine in the MBL. Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was the technique used for iodine measurements. Offline methods using water extraction and Tetra-methyl-ammonium-hydroxide (TMAH) extraction were applied to measure total soluble iodine (TSI) and total insoluble iodine (TII) in the marine aerosol samples. External standard calibration and isotope dilution analysis (IDA) were both conducted for iodine quantification and the limits of detection (LODs) were both 0.1 μg L-1 for TSI and TII measurements. Online couplings of Ion Chromatography (IC)-ICP-MS and Gel electrophoresis (GE)-ICP-MS were both developed for soluble iodine speciation. Anion exchange columns were adopted for IC-ICP-MS systems. Iodide, iodate, and unknown signal(s) were observed in these methods. Iodide and iodate were separated successfully and the LODs were 0.1 and 0.5 μg L-1, respectively. Unknown signals were soluble organic iodine species (SOI) and quantified by the calibration curve of iodide, but not clearly identified and quantified yet. These analytical methods were all applied to the iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples from the worldwide filed campaigns. The TSI and TII concentrations (medians) in PM2.5 were found to be 240.87 pmol m-3 and 105.37 pmol m-3 at Mace Head, west coast of Ireland, as well as 119.10 pmol m-3 and 97.88 pmol m-3 in the cruise campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean, during June – July 2006. Inorganic iodine, namely iodide and iodate, was the minor iodine fraction in both campaigns, accounting for 7.3% (median) and 5.8% (median) in PM2.5 iodine at Mace Head and over the North Atlantic Ocean, respectively. Iodide concentrations were higher than iodate in most of the samples. In the contrast, more than 90% of TSI was SOI and the SOI concentration was correlated significantly with the iodide concentration. The correlation coefficients (R2) were both higher than 0.5 at Mace Head and in the first leg of the cruise. Size fractionated aerosol samples collected by 5 stage Berner impactor cascade sampler showed similar proportions of inorganic and organic iodine. Significant correlations were obtained in the particle size ranges of 0.25 – 0.71 μm and 0.71 – 2.0 μm between SOI and iodide, and better correlations were found in sunny days. TSI and iodide existed mainly in fine particle size range (< 2.0 μm) and iodate resided in coarse range (2.0 – 10 μm). Aerosol iodine was suggested to be related to the primary iodine release in the tidal zone. Natural meteorological conditions such as solar radiation, raining etc were observed to have influence on the aerosol iodine. During the ship campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean (January – February 2007), the TSI concentrations (medians) ranged 35.14 – 60.63 pmol m-3 among the 5 stages. Likewise, SOI was found to be the most abundant iodine fraction in TSI with a median of 98.6%. Significant correlation also presented between SOI and iodide in the size range of 2.0 – 5.9 μm. Higher iodate concentration was again found in the higher particle size range, similar to that at Mace Head. Airmass transport from the biogenic bloom region and the Antarctic ice front sector was observed to play an important role in aerosol iodine enhancement. The TSI concentrations observed along the 30,000 km long cruise round trip from East Asia to Antarctica during November 2005 – March 2006 were much lower than in the other campaigns, with a median of 6.51 pmol m-3. Approximately 70% of the TSI was SOI on average. The abundances of inorganic iodine including iodine and iodide were less than 30% of TSI. The median value of iodide was 1.49 pmol m-3, which was more than four fold higher than that of iodate (median, 0.28 pmol m-3). Spatial variation indicated highest aerosol iodine appearing in the tropical area. Iodine level was considerably lower in coastal Antarctica with the TSI median of 3.22 pmol m-3. However, airmass transport from the ice front sector was correlated with the enhance TSI level, suggesting the unrevealed source of iodine in the polar region. In addition, significant correlation between SOI and iodide was also shown in this campaign. A global distribution in aerosol was shown in the field campaigns in this work. SOI was verified globally ubiquitous due to the presence in the different sampling locations and its high proportion in TSI in the marine aerosols. The correlations between SOI and iodide were obtained not only in different locations but also in different seasons, implying the possible mechanism of iodide production through SOI decomposition. Nevertheless, future studies are needed for improving the current understanding of iodine chemistry in the MBL (e.g. SOI identification and quantification as well as the update modeling involving organic matters).

Reactive halogen compounds in the marine boundary layer: method developments and field measurements

Reactive halogen compounds are known to play an important role in a wide variety of atmospheric processes such as atmospheric oxidation capacity and coastal new particle formation. In this work, novel analytical approaches combining diffusion denuder/impinger sampling techniques with gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric (GC–MS) determination are developed to measure activated chlorine compounds (HOCl and Cl2), activated bromine compounds (HOBr, Br2, BrCl, and BrI), activated iodine compounds (HOI and ICl), and molecular iodine (I2). The denuder/GC–MS methods have been used to field measurements in the marine boundary layer (MBL). High mixing ratios (of the order of 100 ppt) of activated halogen compounds and I2 are observed in the coastal MBL in Ireland, which explains the ozone destruction observed. The emission of I2 is found to correlate inversely with tidal height and correlate positively with the levels of O3 in the surrounding air. In addition the release is found to be dominated by algae species compositions and biomass density, which proves the “hot-spot” hypothesis of atmospheric iodine chemistry. The observations of elevated I2 concentrations substantially support the existence of higher concentrations of littoral iodine oxides and thus the connection to the strong ultra-fine particle formation events in the coastal MBL.

Untersuchung von organischen Spurengasen und sekundärem organischem Aerosol in der Atmosphäre mittels PTR-MS

In dieser Arbeit wurden die OH-Radikalausbeuten beider Doppelbindungen von alpha-Phellandren, alpha-Terpinen, Limonen und Terpinolen bei der Ozonolyse getrennt voneinander bestimmt. Dabei wurde sich die hohe zeitliche Auflösung des PTR-MS zunutze gemacht. Es wurden die OH-Radikale mittels Cyclohexan abgefangen und aus dem daraus gebildeten Cyclohexanon die OH-Radikalausbeute berechnet. Dadurch konnten zum ersten Mal die OH-Radikalausbeuten der langsamer reagierenden Doppelbindung bestimmt werden. Es ergaben sich für alpha-Phellandren 8%11% (±3%), alpha-Terpinen 12%14% (±4%), Limonen 7%10% (±3%) und für Terpinolen 39%48% (±14%). Desweiteren wurde eine theoretische Diskussion über den Reaktionsmechanismus der Ozonolyse und dem daraus gebildetem Criegee-Intermediat durchgeführt. Dadurch konnten die OH-Radikalausbeuten erklärt werden und eine Voraussage über die OH-Radikalausbeute bei anderen Verbindungen ist mit diesen Überlegungen möglich. In einer Messkampagne in Paris konnten verschiedene VOCs und andere atmosphärisch relevante Komponenten wie Ozon, CO, NO2 und NO gemessen werden. Aus diesen Daten wurde zum einen ein Datenpaket in Igor gefertigt, welches die Interpretation der Daten erleichtern sollte. Zum anderen wurden die Daten mit einem PMF-Model analysiert.Durch die Analyse verschiedener Komponenten konnte die Frage beantwortet werden, ob die Lösungsmittelindustrie in und um Paris einen großen Einfluss auf die Konzentrationen gewisser Komponenten in der Luft hat. Über die Korrelation von Benzol und Toluol mit schwarzem Kohlenstoff und den typischen Tagesverlauf mit zwei Konzentrationsmaxima dieser Komponenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass als Hauptquelle diese beiden Stoffe nur der Straßenverkehr infrage kommt. Desweiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Luftmassen die Paris erreichen einen großen Einfluss auf die Konzentration gewisser Komponenten in der Luft haben. Dadurch konnte gut zwischen lokalen Quellen und weit transportierten VOCs unterschieden werden. Schließlich konnten über das PFM-Model ein Großteil der in Paris gemessenen Substanzen in sieben unterschiedliche Quellen eingeteilt werden und deren prozentualer Einfluss während ozeanischer Luftmassen und kontinentalen Luftmassen bestimmt werden. Um Bestandteile von organischem Aerosol mithilfe eines PTR-MS und dessen schonender Ionisationstechnik detektieren zu können, wurde erfolgreich ein Einlass für das PTR-MS entwickelt der es ermöglicht neben den Messungen von VOCs in der Gasphase auch organisches Aerosol zu sammeln, desorbieren und zu detektieren. Zu Testen des neuen Einlasses wurden verschiedene Laborexperimente durchgeführt und es wurde eine Messkampagne in Cabauw (nahe Utrecht, NL) durchgeführt. Die Labortests des neuen Einlasses zeigen, dass es möglich ist organisches Aerosol und VOCs (Aerosol Precurser) in der Gasphase mit einem einzelnen Instrument zu messen. Dazu wurden in einer Smog Chamber Isopren, alpha-Pinen, Limonen und beta-Caryophyllen jeweils mit Ozon zur Reaktion gebracht. Die Messungen in der Gasphase zeigten, dass verschiedene Komponenten wie gewohnt mit hoher Zeitauflösung durch das PTR-MS detektiert werden konnten. Die Messungen des Aerosols zeigten, dass es möglich ist, viele der aus den Reaktionen bekannten Produkte direkt oder mit geringer Fragmentation zu detektieren. Die Messkampagne in Cabauw zeigte, dass es mit diesem Einlass möglich ist über einen langen Zeitraum Aerosol und VOCs mit nur einem Instrument zu messen. Die Gasphasenmessungen sind unbeeinflusst von den Modifikationen, die an dem PTR-MS und der Driftröhre vorgenommen werden mussten um Aerosol detektieren zu können. Desweiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich natürliches organisches Aerosol von Aerosol aus einer Smog Chamber im Dampfdruck unterscheidet. Deswegen muss man vorsichtig sein, falls man diese zwei Aerosolarten miteinander vergleichen will.

Der Renormierungsgruppen-Fluß der konform-reduzierten Quantengravitation

Wir analysieren die Rolle von "Hintergrundunabhängigkeit" im Zugang der effektiven Mittelwertwirkung zur Quantengravitation. Wenn der nicht-störungstheoretische Renormierungsgruppen-(RG)-Fluß "hintergrundunabhängig" ist, muß die Vergröberung durch eine nicht spezifizierte, variable Metrik definiert werden. Die Forderung nach "Hintergrundunabhängigkeit" in der Quantengravitation führt dazu, daß die funktionale RG-Gleichung von zusätzlichen Feldern abhängt; dadurch unterscheidet sich der RG-Fluß in der Quantengravitation deutlich von dem RG-Fluß einer gewöhnlichen Quantentheorie, deren Moden-Cutoff von einer starren Metrik abhängt. Beispielsweise kann in der "hintergrundunabhängigen" Theorie ein Nicht-Gauß'scher Fixpunkt existieren, obwohl die entsprechende gewöhnliche Quantentheorie keinen solchen entwickelt. Wir untersuchen die Bedeutung dieses universellen, rein kinematischen Effektes, indem wir den RG-Fluß der Quanten-Einstein-Gravitation (QEG) in einem "konform-reduzierten" Zusammenhang untersuchen, in dem wir nur den konformen Faktor der Metrik quantisieren. Alle anderen Freiheitsgrade der Metrik werden vernachlässigt. Die konforme Reduktion der Einstein-Hilbert-Trunkierung zeigt exakt dieselben qualitativen Eigenschaften wie in der vollen Einstein-Hilbert-Trunkierung. Insbesondere besitzt sie einen Nicht-Gauß'schen Fixpunkt, der notwendig ist, damit die Gravitation asymptotisch sicher ist. Ohne diese zusätzlichen Feldabhängigkeiten ist der RG-Fluß dieser Trunkierung der einer gewöhnlichen $phi^4$-Theorie. Die lokale Potentialnäherung für den konformen Faktor verallgemeinert den RG-Fluß in der Quantengravitation auf einen unendlich-dimensionalen Theorienraum. Auch hier finden wir sowohl einen Gauß'schen als auch einen Nicht-Gauß'schen Fixpunkt, was weitere Hinweise dafür liefert, daß die Quantengravitation asymptotisch sicher ist. Das Analogon der Metrik-Invarianten, die proportional zur dritten Potenz der Krümmung ist und die die störungstheoretische Renormierbarkeit zerstört, ist unproblematisch für die asymptotische Sicherheit der konform-reduzierten Theorie. Wir berechnen die Skalenfelder und -imensionen der beiden Fixpunkte explizit und diskutieren mögliche Einflüsse auf die Vorhersagekraft der Theorie. Da der RG-Fluß von der Topologie der zugrundeliegenden Raumzeit abhängt, diskutieren wir sowohl den flachen Raum als auch die Sphäre. Wir lösen die Flußgleichung für das Potential numerisch und erhalten Beispiele für RG-Trajektorien, die innerhalb der Ultraviolett-kritischen Mannigfaltigkeit des Nicht-Gauß'schen Fixpunktes liegen. Die Quantentheorien, die durch einige solcher Trajektorien definiert sind, zeigen einen Phasenübergang von der bekannten (Niederenergie-) Phase der Gravitation mit spontan gebrochener Diffeomorphismus-Invarianz zu einer neuen Phase von ungebrochener Diffeomorphismus-Invarianz. Diese Hochenergie-Phase ist durch einen verschwindenden Metrik-Erwartungswert charakterisiert.

Top-quark pair production at hadron colliders

In this thesis we investigate several phenomenologically important properties of top-quark pair production at hadron colliders. We calculate double differential cross sections in two different kinematical setups, pair invariant-mass (PIM) and single-particle inclusive (1PI) kinematics. In pair invariant-mass kinematics we are able to present results for the double differential cross section with respect to the invariant mass of the top-quark pair and the top-quark scattering angle. Working in the threshold region, where the pair invariant mass M is close to the partonic center-of-mass energy sqrt{hat{s}}, we are able to factorize the partonic cross section into different energy regions. We use renormalization-group (RG) methods to resum large threshold logarithms to next-to-next-to-leading-logarithmic (NNLL) accuracy. On a technical level this is done using effective field theories, such as heavy-quark effective theory (HQET) and soft-collinear effective theory (SCET). The same techniques are applied when working in 1PI kinematics, leading to a calculation of the double differential cross section with respect to transverse-momentum pT and the rapidity of the top quark. We restrict the phase-space such that only soft emission of gluons is possible, and perform a NNLL resummation of threshold logarithms. The obtained analytical expressions enable us to precisely predict several observables, and a substantial part of this thesis is devoted to their detailed phenomenological analysis. Matching our results in the threshold regions to the exact ones at next-to-leading order (NLO) in fixed-order perturbation theory, allows us to make predictions at NLO+NNLL order in RG-improved, and at approximate next-to-next-to-leading order (NNLO) in fixed order perturbation theory. We give numerical results for the invariant mass distribution of the top-quark pair, and for the top-quark transverse-momentum and rapidity spectrum. We predict the total cross section, separately for both kinematics. Using these results, we analyze subleading contributions to the total cross section in 1PI and PIM originating from power corrections to the leading terms in the threshold expansions, and compare them to previous approaches. We later combine our PIM and 1PI results for the total cross section, this way eliminating uncertainties due to these corrections. The combined predictions for the total cross section are presented as a function of the top-quark mass in the pole, the minimal-subtraction (MS), and the 1S mass scheme. In addition, we calculate the forward-backward (FB) asymmetry at the Tevatron in the laboratory, and in the ttbar rest frames as a function of the rapidity and the invariant mass of the top-quark pair at NLO+NNLL. We also give binned results for the asymmetry as a function of the invariant mass and the rapidity difference of the ttbar pair, and compare those to recent measurements. As a last application we calculate the charge asymmetry at the LHC as a function of a lower rapidity cut-off for the top and anti-top quarks.

Granulite facies metamorphism and partial melting processes in the Ivrea Zone, Northern Italy

The Ivrea Zone in northern Italy has been the focus of numerous petrological, geochemical and structural studies. It is commonly inferred to represent an almost complete section through the mid to lower continental crust, in which metamorphism and partial melting of the abundant metapelites was the result of magmatic underplating by a large volume of mantle-derived magma. This study concerns amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphism in the Ivrea Zone with focus on metapelites and metapsammites/metagreywackes from Val Strona di Omegna and metapelites from Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua, with the aim to better constrain their metamorphic evolution as well as their pressure and temperature conditions via phase equilibria modelling.rnrnIn Val Strona di Omegna, the metapelites show a structural and mineralogical change from mica-schists with the common assemblage bi-mu-sill-pl-q-ilm ± liq at the lowest grades, through metatexitic migmatites (g-sill-bi-ksp-pl-q-ilm-liq) at intermediate grades, to complex diatexitic migmatites (g-sill-ru-bi-ksp-pl-q-ilm-liq) at the highest grades. Within this section several mappable isograds occur, including the first appearance of K-feldspar in the metapelites, the first appearance of orthopyroxene in the metabasites and the disappearance of prograde biotite from the metapelites. The inferred onset of partial melting in the metapelites occurs around Massiola. The prograde suprasolidus evolution of the metapelites is consistent with melting via the breakdown of first muscovite then biotite. Maximum modelled melt fractions of 30–40 % are predicted at the highest grade. The regional metamorphic field gradient in Val Strona di Omegna is constrained to range from conditions of 3.5–6.5 kbar at T = 650–730 °C to P &gt; 9 kbar at T &gt; 900 °C. The peak P–T estimates, particularly for granulite facies conditions, are significantly higher (around 100 °C) than those of most previous studies. In Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua to the south the exposure is more restricted. P–T estimates for the metapelites are 750–850 °C and 5–6.5 kbar in Val Sesia and approximately 800–900 °C and 5.5–7 kbar in Val Strona di Postua. These results show similar temperatures but lower pressure than metapelites in Val Strona di Omegna. Metapelites in Val Sesia in contact with the Mafic Complex exhibit a metatexitic structure, while in Val Strona di Postua diatexitic structures occur. Further, metapelites at the contact with the Mafic Complex contain cordierite (± spinel) that overprint the regional metamorphic assemblages and are interpreted to have formed during contact metamorphism related to intrusion of the Mafic Complex. The lower pressures in the high-grade rocks in Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua are consistent with some decompression from the regional metamorphic peak prior to the intrusion of the Mafic Complex, suggesting the rocks followed a clockwise P–T path. In contrast, the metapelites in Val Strona di Omegna, especially in the granulite facies, do not contain any cordierite or any evidence for a contact metamorphic overprint. The extrapolated granulite facies mineral isograds are cut by the rocks of the Mafic Complex to the south. Therefore, the Mafic Complex cannot have caused the regional metamorphism and it is unlikely that the Mafic Complex occurs in Val Strona di Omegna.

The sensitivity of the photostationary state of NOx and its implication for the oxidation capacity in a semi-rural and boreal forest region

Für das Vermögen der Atmosphäre sich selbst zu reinigen spielen Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) und Stickstoffdioxid (NO2) eine bedeutende Rolle. Diese Spurengase bestimmen die photochemische Produktion von Ozon (O3) und beeinflussen das Vorkommen von Hydroxyl- (OH) und Nitrat-Radikalen (NO3). Wenn tagsüber ausreichend Solarstrahlung und Ozon vorherrschen, stehen NO und NO2 in einem schnellen photochemischen Gleichgewicht, dem „Photostationären Gleichgewichtszustand“ (engl.: photostationary state). Die Summe von NO und NO2 wird deshalb als NOx zusammengefasst. Vorhergehende Studien zum photostationären Gleichgewichtszustand von NOx umfassen Messungen an unterschiedlichsten Orten, angefangen bei Städten (geprägt von starken Luftverschmutzungen), bis hin zu abgeschiedenen Regionen (geprägt von geringeren Luftverschmutzungen). Während der photochemische Kreislauf von NO und NO2 unter Bedingungen erhöhter NOx-Konzentrationen grundlegend verstanden ist, gibt es in ländlicheren und entlegenen Regionen, welche geprägt sind von niedrigeren NOx-Konzetrationen, signifikante Lücken im Verständnis der zugrundeliegenden Zyklierungsprozesse. Diese Lücken könnten durch messtechnische NO2-Interferenzen bedingt sein - insbesondere bei indirekten Nachweismethoden, welche von Artefakten beeinflusst sein können. Bei sehr niedrigen NOx-Konzentrationen und wenn messtechnische NO2-Interferenzen ausgeschlossen werden können, wird häufig geschlussfolgert, dass diese Verständnislücken mit der Existenz eines „unbekannten Oxidationsmittels“ (engl.: unknown oxidant) verknüpft ist. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird der photostationäre Gleichgewichtszustand von NOx analysiert, mit dem Ziel die potenzielle Existenz bislang unbekannter Prozesse zu untersuchen. Ein Gasanalysator für die direkte Messung von atmosphärischem NO¬2 mittels laserinduzierter Fluoreszenzmesstechnik (engl. LIF – laser induced fluorescence), GANDALF, wurde neu entwickelt und während der Messkampagne PARADE 2011 erstmals für Feldmessungen eingesetzt. Die Messungen im Rahmen von PARADE wurden im Sommer 2011 in einem ländlich geprägten Gebiet in Deutschland durchgeführt. Umfangreiche NO2-Messungen unter Verwendung unterschiedlicher Messtechniken (DOAS, CLD und CRD) ermöglichten einen ausführlichen und erfolgreichen Vergleich von GANDALF mit den übrigen NO2-Messtechniken. Weitere relevante Spurengase und meteorologische Parameter wurden gemessen, um den photostationären Zustand von NOx, basierend auf den NO2-Messungen mit GANDALF in dieser Umgebung zu untersuchen. Während PARADE wurden moderate NOx Mischungsverhältnisse an der Messstelle beobachtet (10^2 - 10^4 pptv). Mischungsverhältnisse biogener flüchtige Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen (BVOC, engl.: biogenic volatile organic compounds) aus dem umgebenden Wald (hauptsächlich Nadelwald) lagen in der Größenordnung 10^2 pptv vor. Die Charakteristiken des photostationären Gleichgewichtszustandes von NOx bei niedrigen NOx-Mischungsverhältnissen (10 - 10^3 pptv) wurde für eine weitere Messstelle in einem borealen Waldgebiet während der Messkampagne HUMPPA-COPEC 2010 untersucht. HUMPPA–COPEC–2010 wurde im Sommer 2010 in der SMEARII-Station in Hyytiälä, Süd-Finnland, durchgeführt. Die charakteristischen Eigenschaften des photostationären Gleichgewichtszustandes von NOx in den beiden Waldgebieten werden in dieser Arbeit verglichen. Des Weiteren ermöglicht der umfangreiche Datensatz - dieser beinhaltet Messungen von relevanten Spurengasen für die Radikalchemie (OH, HO2), sowie der totalen OH-Reaktivität – das aktuelle Verständnis bezüglich der NOx-Photochemie unter Verwendung von einem Boxmodell, in welches die gemessenen Daten als Randbedingungen eingehen, zu überprüfen und zu verbessern. Während NOx-Konzentrationen in HUMPPA-COPEC 2010 niedriger sind, im Vergleich zu PARADE 2011 und BVOC-Konzentrationen höher, sind die Zyklierungsprozesse von NO und NO2 in beiden Fällen grundlegend verstanden. Die Analyse des photostationären Gleichgewichtszustandes von NOx für die beiden stark unterschiedlichen Messstandorte zeigt auf, dass potenziell unbekannte Prozesse in keinem der beiden Fälle vorhanden sind. Die aktuelle Darstellung der NOx-Chemie wurde für HUMPPA-COPEC 2010 unter Verwendung des chemischen Mechanismus MIM3* simuliert. Die Ergebnisse der Simulation sind konsistent mit den Berechnungen basierend auf dem photostationären Gleichgewichtszustand von NOx.

Radio relics and magnetic fields in galaxy clusters

Radio relics are diffuse synchrotron sources generally located in the peripheries of galaxy clusters in merging state. According to the current leading scenario, relics trace gigantic cosmological shock waves that cross the intra-cluster medium where particle acceleration occurs. The relic/shock connection is supported by several observational facts, including the spatial coincidence between relics and shocks found in the X-rays. Under the assumptions that particles are accelerated at the shock front and are subsequently deposited and then age downstream of the shock, Markevitch et al. (2005) proposed a method to constrain the magnetic field strength in radio relics. Measuring the thickness of radio relics at different frequencies allows to derive combined constraints on the velocity of the downstream flow and on the magnetic field, which in turns determines particle aging. We elaborate this idea to infer first constraints on magnetic fields in cluster outskirts. We consider three models of particle aging and develop a geometric model to take into account the contribution to the relic transverse size due to the projection of the shock-surface on the plane of the sky. We selected three well studied radio relics in the clusters A 521, CIZA J2242.8+5301 and 1RXS J0603.3+4214. These relics have been chosen primarily because they are almost seen edge-on and because the Mach number of the shock that is associated with these relics is measured by X-ray observations, thus allowing to break the degeneracy between magnetic field and downstream velocity in the method. For the first two clusters, our method is consistent with a pure radiative aging model allowing us to derive constraints on the relics magnetic field strength. In the case of 1RXS J0603.3+4214 we find that particle life-times are consistent with a pure radiative aging model under some conditions, however we also collect evidences for downstream particle re-acceleration in the relic W-region and for a magnetic field decaying downstream in its E-region. Our estimates of the magnetic field strength in the relics in A 521 and CIZA J2242.8+5301 provide unique information on the field properties in cluster outskirts. The constraints derived for these relics, together with the lower limits to the magnetic field that we derived from the lack of inverse Compton X-ray emission from the sources, have been combined with the constraints from Faraday rotation studies of the Coma cluster. Overall results suggest that the spatial profile of the magnetic field energy density is broader than that of the thermal gas, implying that the ε_th /ε_B ratio decreases with cluster radius. Alternatively, radio relics could trace dynamically active regions where the magnetic field strength is biased high with respect to the average value in the cluster volume.

Fully Automatic Segmentation of Brain Tumor Images using Support Vector Machine Classiffication in Combination with Hierarchical Conditional Random Field Regularization

Delineating brain tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance images is an essential task for the analysis of brain cancer. We propose a fully automatic method for brain tissue segmentation, which combines Support Vector Machine classification using multispectral intensities and textures with subsequent hierarchical regularization based on Conditional Random Fields. The CRF regularization introduces spatial constraints to the powerful SVM classification, which assumes voxels to be independent from their neighbors. The approach first separates healthy and tumor tissue before both regions are subclassified into cerebrospinal fluid, white matter, gray matter and necrotic, active, edema region respectively in a novel hierarchical way. The hierarchical approach adds robustness and speed by allowing to apply different levels of regularization at different stages. The method is fast and tailored to standard clinical acquisition protocols. It was assessed on 10 multispectral patient datasets with results outperforming previous methods in terms of segmentation detail and computation times.

Seroprevalence of Taenia saginata cysticercosis in the federal state of Lower Saxony in Germany

Based on ELISA results from randomly selected serum samples taken from 128 cattle from different administrative and urban districts in the federal state of Lower Saxony in Germany a seroprevalence estimate of Taenia saginata cysticercosis in this area was derived. This estimate was subsequently used to calculate the sample size required in an epidemiological study to determine the actual prevalence of this infection in the cattle population (n = 2 604 767) in this federal state. The sample size was calculated as 1518 and the samples were collected according to the distribution of cattle among the 48 administrative and urban districts in Lower Saxony. The samples were tested with an evaluated antibody ELISA. The results showed a positive antibody titre rate of 8.83% from the total tested samples.

Low-field Mri and arthroscopy of meniscal lesions in ten dogs with experimentally induced cranial cruciate ligament insufficiency

Little is known about the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) appearance of canine meniscal lesions. The aim of this study is to describe the MR appearance of meniscal lesions in dogs with experimentally induced cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) deficiency. The pilot study revealed dogs weighing approximately 10 kg to be too small for meniscal evaluation on low-field MRI. In the main study, dogs weighing approximately 35 kg were used. The left CCL was transected and low-field MRI was performed regularly until 13 months post-surgery. Normal menisci were defined as grade 0. Intrameniscal lesions not reaching any surface corresponded to grade 1 if focal and to grade 2 if linear or diffuse. Grade 3 lesions consisted in linear tears penetrating a meniscal surface. Grade 4 lesions included complex signal changes or meniscal distortion. Between 2 and 13 months post-surgery, all dogs developed grade 4 lesions in the medial meniscus. Most of them corresponded to longitudinal or bucket handle tears on arthroscopy and necropsy. Two dogs showed grade 3 lesions reaching the tibial surface of the lateral meniscus on MRI but not in arthroscopy. Such tears are difficult to evaluate arthroscopically; MRI provides more accurate information about the tibial meniscal surface. Grades 1 and 2 lesions could not be differentiated from presumably normal menisci with our imaging technique. An MRI grading system better adapted to canine lesions has yet to be developed. MRI is a helpful tool for the diagnosis of complete tears in the canine meniscus, especially in larger dogs.

Sex Differences in Semantic Processing: Event-Related Brain Potentials Distinguish between Lower and Higher Order Semantic Analysis during Word Reading

Behavioral studies suggest that women and men differ in the strategic elaboration of verbally encoded information especially in the absence of external task demand. However, measuring such covert processing requires other than behavioral data. The present study used event-related potentials to compare sexes in lower and higher order semantic processing during the passive reading of semantically related and unrelated word pairs. Women and men showed the same early context effect in the P1-N1 transition period. This finding indicates that the initial lexical-semantic access is similar in men and women. In contrast, sexes differed in higher order semantic processing. Women showed an earlier and longer lasting context effect in the N400 accompanied by larger signal strength in temporal networks similarly recruited by men and women. The results suggest that women spontaneously conduct a deeper semantic analysis. This leads to faster processing of related words in the active neural networks as reflected in a shorter stability of the N400 map in women. Taken together, the findings demonstrate that there is a selective sex difference in the controlled semantic analysis during passive word reading that is not reflected in different functional organization but in the depth of processing.

Electron transport in E x B devices

A Hall thruster, an E × B device used for in-space propulsion, utilizes an axial electric field to electrostatically accelerate plasma propellant from the spacecraft. The axial electric field is created by positively biasing the anode so that the positivelycharged ions may be accelerated (repelled) from the thruster, which produces thrust. However, plasma electrons are much smaller than ions and may be accelerated much more quickly toward the anode; if electrons were not impeded, a "short circuit" due to the electron flow would eliminate the thrust mechanism. Therefore, a magnetic field serves to "magnetize" plasma electrons internal to the thruster and confines them in gyro-orbits within the discharge channel. Without outside factors electrons would be confined indefinitely; however, electron-neutral collisions provide a mechanism to free electrons from their orbits allowing electrons to cross the magnetic field toward the anode, where this process is described by classical transport theory. To make matters worse, cross-field electron transport has been observed to be 100-1000 times that predicted by classical collisional theory, providing an efficiency loss mechanism and an obstacle for modeling and simulations in Hall thrusters. The main difficulty in studying electron transport in Hall thrusters is the coupling that exists between the plasma and the fields, where the plasma creates and yet is influenced by the electric field. A device has been constructed at MTU’s Isp Lab, the Hall Electron Mobility Gage, which was designed specifically to study electron transport in E × B devices, where the coupling between the plasma and electric field was virtually eliminated. In this device the two most cited contributors to electron transport in Hall thrusters, fluctuation-induced transport, and wall effects, were absent. Removing the dielectric walls and plasma fluctuations, while maintaining the field environment in vacuum, has allowed the study of electron dynamics in Hall thruster fields where the electrons behave as test particles in prescribed fields, greatly simplifying the environment. Therefore, it was possible to observe any effects on transport not linked to the cited mechanisms, and it was possible to observe trends of the enhanced mobility with control parameters of electric and magnetic fields and neutral density– parameters that are not independently variable in a Hall thruster. The result of the investigation was the observation of electron transport that was ~ 20-100 times the classical prediction. The cross-field electron transport in the Mobility Gage was generally lower than that found in a Hall thruster so these findings do not negate the possibility of fluctuations and/or wall collisions contributing to transport in a Hall thruster. However, this research led to the observation of enhanced cross-field transport that had not been previously isolated in Hall thruster fields, which is not reliant on momentum-transfer collisions, wall collisions or fluctuations.

Dynamics of settling charged particles in turbulence : theory and experiments

It has been proposed that inertial clustering may lead to an increased collision rate of water droplets in clouds. Atmospheric clouds and electrosprays contain electrically charged particles embedded in turbulent flows, often under the influence of an externally imposed, approximately uniform gravitational or electric force. In this thesis, we present the investigation of charged inertial particles embedded in turbulence. We have developed a theoretical description for the dynamics of such systems of charged, sedimenting particles in turbulence, allowing radial distribution functions to be predicted for both monodisperse and bidisperse particle size distributions. The governing parameters are the particle Stokes number (particle inertial time scale relative to turbulence dissipation time scale), the Coulomb-turbulence parameter (ratio of Coulomb ’terminalar speed to turbulence dissipation velocity scale), and the settling parameter (the ratio of the gravitational terminal speed to turbulence dissipation velocity scale). For the monodispersion particles, The peak in the radial distribution function is well predicted by the balance between the particle terminal velocity under Coulomb repulsion and a time-averaged ’drift’ velocity obtained from the nonuniform sampling of fluid strain and rotation due to finite particle inertia. The theory is compared to measured radial distribution functions for water particles in homogeneous, isotropic air turbulence. The radial distribution functions are obtained from particle positions measured in three dimensions using digital holography. The measurements support the general theoretical expression, consisting of a power law increase in particle clustering due to particle response to dissipative turbulent eddies, modulated by an exponential electrostatic interaction term. Both terms are modified as a result of the gravitational diffusion-like term, and the role of ’gravity’ is explored by imposing a macroscopic uniform electric field to create an enhanced, effective gravity. The relation between the radial distribution functions and inward mean radial relative velocity is established for charged particles.

RESILIENT WOMEN, METISTIC SCIENTISTS: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDY OF HOW WOMEN NEGOTIATE THEIR SITUATEDNESS IN SCIENCE FIELDS

The concept of feminist metistic resilience postulates that the voiceless, the marginalized and the minority in societies employ strategies in order to turn tables in their favor. This study presents a qualitative analysis of how women, considered to be the minority, negotiate their situatedness in science fields in order to effect change in their lives or that of the society and why they become successful. By “situatedness,” I refer to the everyday life of women as they live and encounter people, society and culture, especially, the life of women who have transcended the culturally stipulated role of women and are excelling in a male dominated field. The study, in different dimensions, conceptualizes the reason for the fewer number of women in science; looks at how scientific methods and practices inhibit the development of women in science; and, finally, interrogates the question of objectivity in science. It becomes apparent, through feminist metistic resilience, that women become successful when they accept conventional practices in scientific arrangements and structures. They accept the practices by embracing and not questioning structures and arrangements that have shaped the field of science and by shifting shapes and assuming different forms in order to adapt to conditions they encounter. Apart from adapting and shape shifting, the women also become successful through environmental and social influences. My analysis suggests that more women can be encouraged to pursue science when women practicing science begin to question structures and arrangements that have shaped the practice of science over the centuries. The overall findings of the research provide implications for policy makers, educators and feminist researchers.