La protection des données sur Internet en droit suisse

La protection des données personnelles en Suisse trouve son fondement dans la constitution et se concrétise avant tout dans une loi fédérale adoptée avant l'avènement d'Internet et la généralisation de la transmission d'informations personnelles sur des réseaux numériques. Cette réglementation est complétée par les engagements internationaux de la Suisse et notamment la Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme du Conseil de l'Europe. L'article délimite tout d'abord le champ d'application de la législation, qui joue un rôle pour le traitement de données personnelles par des particuliers comme par les autorités de l'administration fédérale. Suit une brève analyse des principes fondamentaux (licéité, bonne foi, proportionnalité, finalité, exactitude, communication à l'étranger, sécurité, droit d'accès) et de leur application sur Internet. Enfin, la protection du contenu des messages électroniques privés est brièvement abordée sous l'angle du secret des télécommunications et à la lumière d'une jurisprudence récente du Tribunal fédéral.

Le Projet de convention européenne sur la criminalité dans le cyberespace:l’organisation des poursuites internes

Le Conseil de l'Europe a publié le 27 avril 2000 un Projet de convention sur la cybercriminalité dans le cadre d’un appel public à contribution de ses pays membres. Le texte doit être finalisé par un groupe d’experts avant décembre 2000 pour être adopté et ouvert à la signature par le comité des ministres du Conseil de l’Europe à l’automne 2001. Ce projet constitue le futur traité international contre la criminalité dans le cyberespace dans l’espace européen. Le Projet de convention sur la cybercriminalité poursuit deux objectifs. Premièrement, il vise la prévention des actes portant atteinte à la confidentialité, à l’intégrité et à la disponibilité des systèmes informatiques, des réseaux et des données. En second lieu, il prône l’adoption de pouvoirs suffisants pour permettre une lutte efficace contre les infractions pénales de haute technologie. Le cadre de mise en œuvre est possible, d'une part, en facilitant la détection, la recherche et la poursuite, tant au plan du droit de la procédure interne, qu’au niveau international. D'autre part, en prévoyant la création de dispositions matérielles appropriées en vue d’une coopération internationale alliant rapidité et efficacité. Finalement, en garantissant un équilibre adéquat entre les nécessités d’une répression démocratique et le respect des droits fondamentaux. L’objet de cet article est d’examiner le Projet de convention en ses dispositions organisant l’exercice des poursuites à un niveau interne, afin de pouvoir en percevoir autant les avantages que les faiblesses éventuelles au plan de la protection des droits et libertés de la personne.

Étude des discours experts sur la régulation et la criminalisation du trafic d'organes

La présente recherche décrit et examine la problématique posée par le trafic d’organes, de tissus et de cellules d’origine humaine, ainsi que les modes de régulation envisagés au niveau mondial pour lutter contre ce trafic, appréhendés sous l’angle de l’analyse de plusieurs conventions et protocoles internationaux et de leurs recommandations. Nous avons sélectionné, analysé et comparé les discours les plus significatifs de quatre types d’organisations internationales, les associations médicales internationales, l’Organisation des Nations Unies, l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé et le Conseil de l’Europe. Nous avons cherché à connaître leur point de vue sur la commercialisation des organes humains et plus spécifiquement sur le trafic des organes humains, à travers 17 textes que ces acteurs ont produit de 1987 jusqu’en 2014. L’analyse de ces discours experts révèle que la perspective éthique domine l’ensemble des documents. Elle met en évidence les convergences des discours sur la nécessité d’adopter une double stratégie fondée à la fois sur la prévention et la criminalisation du trafic d’organes ainsi que sur l’analyse du lien existant entre la pénurie croissante d’organes et l’avènement du trafic d’organes. Les discours sur la régulation et la criminalisation ont évolué vers un degré de précision et de complexification de la notion du trafic d’organes, une notion qui reste encore peu consensuelle dans sa définition. Quant aux stratégies, il faut observer que l’évolution des discours est assez significative et inégale à ce chapitre. C’est surtout dans les discours experts produits à partir des années 2000 que nous retrouvons des propositions plus concrètes sur les stratégies. La régulation des transactions financières, notamment par les balises de pratiques médicales et celles des intermédiaires, ainsi que les prescriptions entourant le consentement forment les deux types de stratégies les plus souvent mises de l’avant par les experts, toutes organisations confondues. Au fil de l’analyse des textes sur la régulation il est possible d’entrevoir des nuances et des brèches dans le principe d’interdiction de la commercialisation des organes humains, plus précisément en ce qui concerne les types d’organes, de tissus ou de cellules.

Religious diversity and intercultural education : a reference book for schools.'Diversidad religiosa y educación intercultural : un libro de consulta para las escuelas'.

Resumen tomado de la publicación. El manual es el resultado de un proyecto del Consejo de Europa llevado a cabo entre 2002 y 2005 titulado 'The Challenge of intercultural education today: religious diversity and dialogue in Europe' (El reto de la educación intercultural hoy: diversidad religiosa y diálogo en Europa)

Estudio observacional de las clases de español como segunda lengua en las aulas de adaptación lingüística en Andalucía.

Memoria de máster (Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 2009). Resumen basado en el de la publicación. Incluye anexos

A emergência do conceito da interculturalidade no ensino e aprendizagem de língua estrangeira

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

La protezione dei diritti sociali nell'ordinamento dell'Unione Europea

This study deals with the protection of social rights in Europe and aims to outline the position currently held by these rights in the EU law. The first two chapters provide an overview of the regulatory framework in which the social rights lie, through the reorganisation of international sources. In particular the international instruments of protection of social rights are taken into account, both at the universal level, due to the activity of the United Nations Organisation and of its specialized agency, the International Labour Organization, and at a regional level, related to the activity of the Council of Europe. Finally an analysis of sources concludes with the reconstruction of the stages of the recognition of social rights in the EU. The second chapter describes the path followed by social rights in the EU: it examines the founding Treaties and subsequent amendments, the Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of Workers of 1989 and, in particularly, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal status of which was recently treated as the primary law by the Treaty of Lisbon signed in December 2007. The third chapter is, then, focused on the analysis of the substantive aspects of the recognition of the rights made by the EU: it provides a framework of the content and scope of the rights accepted in the Community law by the Charter of Fundamental Rights, which is an important contribution to the location of the social rights among the fundamental and indivisible rights of the person. In the last section of the work, attention is focused on the two profiles of effectiveness and justiciability of social rights, in order to understand the practical implications of the gradual creation of a system of protection of these rights at Community level. Under the first profile, the discussion is focused on the effectiveness in the general context of the mechanisms of implementation of the “second generation” rights, with particular attention to the new instruments and actors of social Europe and the effect of the procedures of soft law. Second part of chapter four, finally, deals with the judicial protection of rights in question. The limits of the jurisprudence of the European Union Court of Justice are more obvious exactly in the field of social rights, due to the gap between social rights and other fundamental rights. While, in fact, the Community Court ensures the maximum level of protection to human rights and fundamental freedoms, social rights are often degraded into mere aspirations of EU institutions and its Member States. That is, the sources in the social field (European Social Charter and Community Charter) represent only the base for interpretation and application of social provisions of secondary legislation, unlike the ECHR, which is considered by the Court part of Community law. Moreover, the Court of Justice is in the middle of the difficult comparison between social values and market rules, of which it considers the need to make a balance: despite hesitancy to recognise the juridical character of social rights, the need of protection of social interests has justified, indeed, certain restrictions to the free movement of goods, freedom to provide services or to Community competition law. The road towards the recognition and the full protection of social rights in the European Union law appears, however, still long and hard, as shown by the recent judgments Laval and Viking, in which the Community court, while enhancing the Nice Charter, has not given priority to fundamental social rights, giving them the role of limits (proportionate and justified) of economic freedoms.

Il contributo dell’Unione europea all’affermazione dello stato di diritto nella comunità internazionale

This thesis is aimed at analysing EU external relations from the perspective of the promotion of the rule of law in order to evaluate the effectiveness and consistency of its action within the international community. The research starts with an examination of the notion of the rule of law from a theoretical point of view. The first chapter initially describes the historical-political evolution of the establishment of the notion of the rule of law. Some of the most significant national experiences (France, the UK, Germany and Austria) are discussed. Then, the focus is put on the need to propose interpretations which explain the grounds of the rule of law, by highlighting the different formal and substantive interpretations. This philosophical-historical analysis is complemented by a reconstruction of how the notion of the rule of law was developed by the international community, with a view to searching a common notion at the international level by comparing theory and practice within the main international organisations such as the UN, OECD and the Council of Europe. Specific mention is made of the EU experience, whose configuration as a Community based on the rule of law is often debated, starting from the case law of the European Court of Justice. The second chapter deals with the conditionality policy and focuses on the development and scope of democratic conditionality according to the dominant approach of the doctrine. First, the birth of conditionality is analysed from an economic point of view, especially within international financial organisations and the different types of conditionality recreated in the scientific sector. Then an analysis is provided about the birth of democratic conditionality in the EC – in relation to its external relations – firstly as a mere political exercise to be then turned into a standardised system of clauses. Specific reference is made to the main scope of conditionality, that is to say enlargement policy and the development of the Copenhagen criteria. The third chapter provides further details about the legal questions connected to the use of democratic clauses: on the one hand, the power of the EC to include human rights clauses in international agreements, on the other, the variety and overlapping in the use of the legal basis. The chapter ends with an analysis of the measures of suspension of agreements with third countries in those rare but significant cases in which the suspension clause, included in the Lomè Convention first and in the Cotonou Agreement then, is applied. The last chapter is devoted to the analysis of democratic clauses in unilateral acts adopted by the European Union which affect third countries. The examination of this practice and the comparison with the approach analysed in the previous chapter entails a major theoretical question. It is the clear-cut distinction between conditionality and international sanction. This distinction is to be taken into account when considering the premises and consequences, in terms of legal relations, which are generated when democratic clauses are not complied with. The chapter ends with a brief analysis of what, according to the reconstruction suggested, can be rightly labelled as real democratic conditionality, that is to say the system of incentives, positive measures developed within the community GSP. The dissertation ends with a few general considerations about the difficulties experienced by the EU in promoting the rule of law. The contradictory aspects of the EU external actions are manifold, as well as its difficulties in choosing the most appropriate measures to be taken which, however, reflect all the repercussions and tension resulting from the balance of power within the international community. The thesis argues that it is difficult to grant full credibility to an entity like the EU which, although it proclaims itself as the guardian and promoter of the rule of law, in practice, is too often biased in managing its relations with third countries. However, she adds, we must acknowledge that the EU is committed and constantly strives towards identifying new spaces and strategies of action.

Controllo dell'atto di prensione: coinvolgimento dell'area V6A nell'orientamento del polso

Prehension in an act of coordinated reaching and grasping. The reaching component is concerned with bringing the hand to object to be grasped (transport phase); the grasping component refers to the shaping of the hand according to the object features (grasping phase) (Jeannerod, 1981). Reaching and grasping involve different muscles, proximal and distal muscles respectively, and are controlled by different parietofrontal circuit (Jeannerod et al., 1995): a medial circuit, involving area of superior parietal lobule and dorsal premotor area 6 (PMd) (dorsomedial visual stream), is mainly concerned with reaching; a lateral circuit, involving the inferior parietal lobule and ventral premotor area 6 (PMv) (dorsolateral visual stream), with grasping. Area V6A is located in the caudalmost part of the superior parietal lobule, so it belongs to the dorsomedial visual stream; it contains neurons sensitive to visual stimuli (Galletti et al. 1993, 1996, 1999) as well as cells sensitive to the direction of gaze (Galletti et al. 1995) and cells showing saccade-related activity (Nakamura et al. 1999; Kutz et al. 2003). Area V6A contains also arm-reaching neurons likely involved in the control of the direction of the arm during movements towards objects in the peripersonal space (Galletti et al. 1997; Fattori et al. 2001). The present results confirm this finding and demonstrate that during the reach-to-grasp the V6A neurons are also modulated by the orientation of the wrist. Experiments were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of Bologna and were performed in accordance with National laws on care and use of laboratory animals and with the European Communities Council Directive of 24th November 1986 (86/609/EEC), recently revised by the Council of Europe guidelines (Appendix A of Convention ETS 123). Experiments were performed in two awake Macaca fascicularis. Each monkey was trained to sit in a primate chair with the head restrained to perform reaching and grasping arm movements in complete darkness while gazing a small fixation point. The object to be grasped was a handle that could have different orientation. We recorded neural activity from 163 neurons of the anterior parietal sulcus; 116/163 (71%) neurons were modulated by the reach-to-grasp task during the execution of the forward movements toward the target (epoch MOV), 111/163 (68%) during the pulling of the handle (epoch HOLD) and 102/163 during the execution of backward movements (epoch M2) (t_test, p ≤ 0.05). About the 45% of the tested cells turned out to be sensitive to the orientation of the handle (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). To study how the distal components of the movement, such as the hand preshaping during the reaching of the handle, could influence the neuronal discharge, we compared the neuronal activity during the reaching movements towards the same spatial location in reach-to-point and reach-to-grasp tasks. Both tasks required proximal arm movements; only the reach-to-grasp task required distal movements to orient the wrist and to shape the hand to grasp the handle. The 56% of V6A cells showed significant differences in the neural discharge (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) between the reach-to-point and the reach-to-grasp tasks during MOV, 54% during HOLD and 52% during M2. These data show that reaching and grasping are processed by the same population of neurons, providing evidence that the coordination of reaching and grasping takes place much earlier than previously thought, i.e., in the parieto-occipital cortex. The data here reported are in agreement with results of lesions to the medial posterior parietal cortex in both monkeys and humans, and with recent imaging data in humans, all of them indicating a functional coupling in the control of reaching and grasping by the medial parietofrontal circuit.

Le politiche giudiziarie inglesi degli anni 2000: mutamento di paradigma e rafforzamento dell'incisività politica dei giudici

The Ph.D. dissertation analyses the reasons for which political actors (governments, legislatures and political parties) decide consciously to give away a source of power by increasing the political significance of the courts. It focuses on a single case of particular significance: the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 in the United Kingdom. This Act has deeply changed the governance and the organization of the English judicial system, has provided a much clearer separation of powers and a stronger independence of the judiciary from the executive and the legislative. What’s more, this strengthening of the judicial independence has been decided in a period in which the political role of the English judges was evidently increasing. I argue that the reform can be interpreted as a «paradigm shift» (Hall 1993), that has changed the way in which the judicial power is considered. The most diffused conceptions in the sub-system of the English judicial policies are shifted, and a new paradigm has become dominant. The new paradigm includes: (i) stronger separation of powers, (ii) collective (as well as individual) conception of the independence of the judiciary, (iii) reduction of the political accountability of the judges, (iv) formalization of the guarantees of judicial independence, (v) principle-driven (instead of pragmatic) approach to the reforms, and (vi) transformation of a non-codified constitution in a codified one. Judicialization through political decisions represent an important, but not fully explored, field of research. The literature, in particular, has focused on factors unable to explain the English case: the competitiveness of the party system (Ramseyer 1994), the political uncertainty at the time of constitutional design (Ginsburg 2003), the cultural divisions within the polity (Hirschl 2004), federal institutions and division of powers (Shapiro 2002). All these contributes link the decision to enhance the political relevance of the judges to some kind of diffusion of political power. In the contemporary England, characterized by a relative high concentration of power in the government, the reasons for such a reform should be located elsewhere. I argue that the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 can be interpreted as a result of three different kinds of reasons: (i) the social and demographical transformations of the English judiciary, which have made inefficient most of the precedent mechanism of governance, (ii) the role played by the judges in the policy process and (iii) the cognitive and normative influences originated from the European context, as a consequence of the membership of the United Kingdom to the European Union and the Council of Europe. My thesis is that only a full analysis of all these three aspects can explain the decision to reform the judicial system and the content of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. Only the cultural influences come from the European legal complex, above all, can explain the paradigm shift previously described.

Fighting corruption with pyramids: A Law and Economics approach to combating corruption in post-socialist countries

Corruption is, in the last two decades, considered as one of the biggest problems within the international community, which harms not only a particular state or society but the whole world. The discussion on corruption in law and economics approach is mainly run under the veil of Public choice theory and principal-agent model. Based on this approach the strong international initiatives taken by the UN, the OECD and the Council of Europe, provided various measures and tools in order to support and guide countries in their combat against corruption. These anti-corruption policies created a repression -prevention-transparency model for corruption combat. Applying this model, countries around the world adopted anti-corruption strategies as part of their legal rules. Nevertheless, the recent researches on the effects of this move show non impressive results. Critics argue that “one size does not fit all” because the institutional setting of countries around the world varies. Among the countries which experience problems of corruption, even though they follow the dominant anti-corruption trends, are transitional, post-socialist countries. To this group belong the countries which are emerging from centrally planned to an open market economy. The socialist past left traces on institutional setting, mentality of the individuals and their interrelation, particularly in the domain of public administration. If the idiosyncrasy of these countries is taken into account the suggestion in this thesis is that in public administration in post-socialist countries, instead of dominant anti-corruption scheme repression-prevention-transparency, corruption combat should be improved through the implementation of a new one, structure-conduct-performance. The implementation of this model is based on three regulatory pyramids: anti-corruption, disciplinary anti-corruption and criminal anti-corruption pyramid. This approach asks public administration itself to engage in corruption combat, leaving criminal justice system as the ultimate weapon, used only for the very harmful misdeeds.