Influence of LPG composition on straw applied one componente PU winter foam

O principal objectivo desta tese é obter uma relação directa entre a composição dos gases liquefeitos de petróleo (GLP), propano, n-butano e isobutano, usados como aerossóis propulsores numa lata de poliuretano de um componente, com as propriedades das espumas produzidas por spray. As espumas obtidas, terão de ter como requisito principal, um bom desempenho a temperaturas baixas, -10ºC, sendo por isso designadas por espumas de Inverno. Uma espuma é considerada como tendo um bom desempenho se não apresentar a -10/-10ºC (temperatura lata/ spray) glass bubbles, base holes e cell collapse. As espumas deverão ainda ter densidades do spray no molde a +23/+23ºC abaixo dos 30 g/L, um rendimento superior a 30 L, boa estabilidade dimensional e um caudal de espuma a +5/+5ºC superior a 5 g/s. Os ensaios experimentais foram realizados a +23/+23ºC, +5/+5ºC e a -10/-10ºC. A cada temperatura, as espumas desenvolvidas, foram submetidas a testes que permitiram determinar a sua qualidade. Testes esses que incluem os designados por Quick Tests (QT): o spray no papel e no molde das espumas nas referidas temperaturas. As amostras do papel e no molde são especialmente analisadas, quanto, às glass bubbles, cell collapse, base holes, cell structur e, cutting shrinkage, para além de outras propriedades. Os QT também incluem a análise da densidade no molde (ODM) e o estudo do caudal de espumas. Além dos QT foram realizados os testes da estabilidade dimensional das espumas, testes físicos de compressão e adesão, testes de expansão das espumas após spray e do rendimento por lata de espuma. Em todos os ensaios foi utilizado um tubo adaptador colocado na válvula da lata como método de spray e ainda mantida constante a proporção das matérias-primas (excepto os gases, em estudo). As experiências iniciaram-se com o estudo de GLPs presentes no mercado de aerossóis. Estes resultaram que o GLP: propano/ n-butano/ isobutano: (30/ 0/ 70 w/w%), produz as melhores espumas de inverno a -10/-10ºC, reduzindo desta forma as glass bubbles, base holes e o cell collapse produzido pelos restantes GLP usados como aerossóis nas latas de poliuretano. Testes posteriores tiveram como objectivo estudar a influência directa de cada gás, propano, n-butano e isobutano nas espumas. Para tal, foram usadas duas referências do estudo com GLP comercializáveis, 7396 (30 /0 /70 w/w %) e 7442 (0/ 0/ 100 w/w %). Com estes resultados concluí-se que o n-butano produz más propriedades nas espumas a -10/- 10ºC, formando grandes quantidades de glass bubbles, base holes e cell collapse. Contudo, o uso de propano reduz essas glass bubbles, mas em contrapartida, forma cell collapse.Isobutano, porém diminui o cell collapse mas não as glass bubbles. Dos resultados experimentais podemos constatar que o caudal a +5/+5ºC e densidade das espumas a +23/+23ºC, são influenciados pela composição do GLP. O propano e n-butano aumentam o caudal de espuma das latas e a sua densidade, ao contrário com o que acontece com o isobutano. Todavia, pelos resultados obtidos, o isobutano proporciona os melhores rendimentos de espumas por lata. Podemos concluir que os GLPs que contivessem cerca de 30 w/w % de propano (bons caudais a +5/+5ºC e menos glass bubbles a -10/-10ºC), e cerca 70 w/w % de isobutano (bons rendimentos de espumas, bem como menos cell collapse a -10/-10ºC) produziam as melhores espumas. Também foram desenvolvidos testes sobre a influência da quantidade de gás GLP presente numa lata. A análise do volume de GLP usado, foi realizada com base na melhor espuma obtida nos estudos anteriores, 7396, com um GLP (30 / 0/ 70 w/w%), e foram feitas alterações ao seu volume gás GLP presente no pré-polímero. O estudo concluiu, que o aumento do volume pode diminuir a densidade das espumas, e o seu decréscimo, um aumento da densidade. Também indico u que um mau ajuste do volume poderá causar más propriedades nas espumas. A análise económica, concluiu que o custo das espumas com mais GLP nas suas formulações, reduz-se em cerca de 3%, a quando de um aumento do volume de GLP no pré-polímero de cerca de 8 %. Esta diminuição de custos deveu-se ao facto, de um aumento de volume de gás, implicar uma diminuição na quantidade das restantes matérias-primas, com custos superiores, já que o volume útil total da lata terá de ser sempre mantido nos 750 mL. Com o objectivo de melhorar a qualidade da espuma 7396 (30/0/70 w/w %) obtida nos ensaios anteriores adicionou-se à formulação 7396 o HFC-152a (1,1-di fluoroetano). Os resultados demonstram que se formam espumas com más propriedades, especialmente a -10/-10ºC, contudo proporcionou excelentes shaking rate da lata. Através de uma pequena análise de custos não é aconselhável o seu uso pelos resultados obtidos, não proporcionando um balanço custo/benefício favorável. As três melhores espumas obtidas de todos os estudos foram comparadas com uma espuma de inverno presente no mercado. 7396 e 7638 com um volume de 27 % no prépolímero e uma composição de GLP (30/ 0 / 70 w/w%) e (13,7/ 0/ 86,3 w/w%), respectivamente, e 7690, com 37 % de volume no pré-polímero e GLP (30/ 0 / 70 w/w%), apresentaram em geral melhores resultados, comparando com a espuma benchmark . Contudo, os seus shaking rate a -10/-10ºC, de cada espuma, apresentaram valores bastante inferiores à composição benchmarking.

MDAI: Model based Design in Automobile Industry

It is proposed a new approach based on a methodology, assisted by a tool, to create new products in the automobile industry based on previous defined processes and experiences inspired on a set of best practices or principles: it is based on high-level models or specifications; it is component-based architecture centric; it is based on generative programming techniques. This approach follows in essence the MDA (Model Driven Architecture) philosophy with some specific characteristics. We propose a repository that keeps related information, such as models, applications, design information, generated artifacts and even information concerning the development process itself (e.g., generation steps, tests and integration milestones). Generically, this methodology receives the users' requirements to a new product (e.g., functional, non-functional, product specification) as its main inputs and produces a set of artifacts (e.g., design parts, process validation output) as its main output, that will be integrated in the engineer design tool (e.g. CAD system) facilitating the work.

Image and color recognition using amorphous silicon p-i-n photodiodes

Large area hydrogenated amorphous silicon single and stacked p-i-n structures with low conductivity doped layers are proposed as monochrome and color image sensors. The layers of the structures are based on amorphous silicon alloys (a-Si(x)C(1-x):H). The current-voltage characteristics and the spectral sensitivity under different bias conditions are analyzed. The output characteristics are evaluated under different read-out voltages and scanner wavelengths. To extract information on image shape, intensity and color, a modulated light beam scans the sensor active area at three appropriate bias voltages and the photoresponse in each scanning position ("sub-pixel") is recorded. The investigation of the sensor output under different scanner wavelengths and varying electrical bias reveals that the response can be tuned, thus enabling color separation. The operation of the sensor is exemplified and supported by a numerical simulation.

ITO/SiOx/Si optical sensor with internal gain

A visible/near-infrared optical sensor based on an ITO/SiOx/n-Si structure with internal gain is presented. This surface-barrier structure was fabricated by a low-temperature processing technique. The interface properties and carder transport were investigated from dark current-voltage and capacitance-voltage characteristics. Examination of the multiplication properties was performed under different light excitation and reverse bias conditions. The spectral and pulse response characteristics are analysed. The current amplification mechanism is interpreted by the control of electron current by the space charge of photogenerated holes near the SiOx/Si interface. The optical sensor output characteristics and some possible device applications are presented.

Laser scanned photodiodes (LSP) for Image sensing

An optimized ZnO:Al/a-pin SixCl1-x:H/Al configuration for the laser scanned photodiode (LSP) imaging detector is proposed. The LSP utilizes light induced depletion layers as detector and a laser beam for readout. The effect of the sensing element structure, cell configuration and light source flux are investigated and correlated with the sensor output characteristics. Experimental data reveal that the large optical gap and the low conductivity of the doped a-SixC1-x:H layers are responsible by an induced inversion layer at the illuminated interfaces which blocks the carrier collection. These insulator-like layers act as MIS gates preventing image smearing. The physical background of the LSP is discussed.

Laser scanned photodiodes (LSPs) for image sensing

An optimized ZnO:Al/a-pin SixC1-x:H/Al configuration for the laser scanned photodiode (LSP) imaging detector is proposed and the read-out parameters improved. The effect of the sensing element structure, cell configuration and light source flux are investigated and correlated with the sensor output characteristics. Data reveals that for sensors with wide band gap doped layers an increase on the image signal optimized to the blue is achieved with a dynamic range of two orders of magnitude, a responsivity of 6 mA W-1 and a sensitivity of 17 muW cm(-2) at 530 nm. The main output characteristics such as image responsivity, resolution, linearity and dynamic range were analyzed under reverse, forward and short circuit modes. The results show that the sensor performance can be optimized in short circuit mode. A trade-off between the scan time and the required resolution is needed since the spot size limits the resolution due to the cross-talk between dark and illuminated regions leading to blurring effects.

New p-i-n Si : H imager configuration for spatial resolution improvement

Amorphous glass/ZnO-Al/p(a-Si:H)/i(a-Si:H)/n(a-Si1-xCx:H)/Al imagers with different n-layer resistivities were produced by plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition technique (PE-CVD). An image is projected onto the sensing element and leads to spatially confined depletion regions that can be readout by scanning the photodiode with a low-power modulated laser beam. The essence of the scheme is the analog readout, and the absence of semiconductor arrays or electrode potential manipulations to transfer the information coming from the transducer. The influence of the intensity of the optical image projected onto the sensor surface is correlated with the sensor output characteristics (sensitivity, linearity blooming, resolution and signal-to-noise ratio) are analysed for different material compositions (0.5 < x < 1). The results show that the responsivity and the spatial resolution are limited by the conductivity of the doped layers. An enhancement of one order of magnitude in the image intensity signal and on the spatial resolution are achieved at 0.2 mW cm(-2) light flux by decreasing the n-layer conductivity by the same amount. A physical model supported by electrical simulation gives insight into the image-sensing technique used.

New stacked photodevices for signal multiplexing and demultiplexing applications in the visible spectrum

Results on the use of a double a-SiC:H p-i-n heterostructure for signal multiplexing and demultiplexing applications in the visible range are presented. Pulsed monochromatic beams together (multiplexing mode), or a single polychromatic beam (demultiplexing mode) impinge on the device and are absorbed, accordingly to their wavelength. Red, green and blue pulsed input channels are transmitted together, each one with a specific transmission rate. The combined optical signal is analyzed by reading out, under different applied voltages, the generated photocurrent. Results show that in the multiplexing mode the output signal is balanced by the wavelength and transmission rate of each input channel, keeping the memory of the incoming optical carriers. In the demultiplexing mode the photocurrent is controlled by the applied voltage allowing regaining the transmitted information. A physical model supported by a numerical simulation gives insight into the device operation.

Novel structure for large area image sensing

This work presents preliminary results in the study of a novel structure for a laser scanned photodiode (LSP) type of image sensor. In order to increase the signal output, a stacked p-i-n-p-i-n structure with an intermediate light-blocking layer is used. The image and the scanning beam are incident through opposite sides of the sensor and their absorption is kept in separate junctions by an intermediate light-blocking layer. As in the usual LSP structure the scanning beam-induced photocurrent is dependent on the local illumination conditions of the image. The main difference between the two structures arises from the fact that in this new structure the image and the scanner have different optical paths leading to an increase in the photocurrent when the scanning beam is incident on a region illuminated on the image side of the sensor, while a decreasing in the photocurrent was observed in the single junction LSP. The results show that the structure can be successfully used as an image sensor even though some optimization is needed to enhance the performance of the device.

Optical confinement and colour separation in a double colour laser scanned photodiode (D/CLSP)

Large area n-i-p-n-i-p a-SiC:H heterostructures are used as sensing element in a double colour laser scanned photodiode image sensor (D/CLSP). This work aims to clarify possible improvements, physical limits and performance of CLSP image sensor when used as non-pixel image reader. Here, the image capture device and the scanning reader are optimized and the effects of the sensor structure on the output characteristics discussed. The role of the design of the sensing element, the doped layer composition and thickness, the read-out parameters (applied voltage and scanner frequency) on the image acquisition and the colour detection process are analysed. A physical model is presented and supported by a numerical simulation of the output characteristics of the sensor.

Optical confinement and colour separation in a double colour laser scanned photodiode (D/CLSP)

Large area n-i-p-n-i-p a-SiC:H heterostructures are used as sensing element in a Double Color Laser Scanned Photodiode image sensor (D/CLSP). This work aims to clarify possible improvements, physical limits and performance of CLSP image sensor when used as non-pixel image reader. Here, the image capture device and the scanning reader are optimized and the effects of the sensor structure on the output characteristics discussed. The role of the design of the sensing element, the doped layer composition and thickness, the read-out parameters (applied voltage and scanner frequency) on the image acquisition and the color detection process are analyzed. A physical model is presented and supported by a numerical simulation of the output characteristics of the sensor.

Stacked photo-sensing devices based on SiC alloys A non-pixelled architecture for imagers and demultiplexing devices

In this review paper different designs based on stacked p-i'-n-p-i-n heterojunctions are presented and compared with the single p-i-n sensing structures. The imagers utilise self-field induced depletion layers for light detection and a modulated laser beam for sequential readout. The effect of the sensing element structure, cell configurations (single or tandem), and light source properties (intensity and wavelength) are correlated with the sensor output characteristics (light-to-dark sensivity, spatial resolution, linearity and S/N ratio). The readout frequency is optimized showing that scans speeds up to 104 lines per second can be achieved without degradation in the resolution. Multilayered p-i'-n-p-i-n heterostructures can also be used as wavelength-division multiplexing /demultiplexing devices in the visible range. Here the sensor element faces the modulated light from different input colour channels, each one with a specific wavelength and bit rate. By reading out the photocurrent at appropriated applied bias, the information is multiplexed or demultiplexed and can be transmitted or recovered again. Electrical models are present to support the sensing methodologies.

Power Electronics Didactic Modules for Direct Current Machine Control

Several didactic modules for an electric machinery laboratory are presented. The modules are dedicated for DC machinery control and get their characteristic curves. The didactic modules have a front panel with power and signal connectors and can be configurable for any DC motor type. The three-phase bridge inverter proposed is one of the most popular topologies and is commercially available in power package modules. The control techniques and power drives were designed to satisfy static and dynamic performance of DC machines. Each power section is internally self-protected against misconnections and short-circuits. Isolated output signals of current and voltage measurements are also provided, adding versatility for use either in didactic or research applications. The implementation of such modules allowed experimental confirmation of the expected performance.

Projecto de um regulador linear de tensão: LDO

Os reguladores de tensão LDO são utilizados intensivamente na actual indústria de electrónica, são uma parte essencial de um bloco de gestão de potência para um SoC. O aumento de produtos portáteis alimentados por baterias levou ao crescimento de soluções totalmente integradas, o que degrada o rendimento dos blocos analógicos que o constituem face às perturbações introduzidas na alimentação. Desta forma, surge a necessidade de procurar soluções cada vez mais optimizadas, impondo assim novas soluções, e/ou melhoramentos dos circuitos de gestão de potência, tendo como objectivo final o aumento do desempenho e da autonomia dos dispositivos electrónicos. Normalmente este tipo de reguladores tem a corrente de saída limitada, devido a problemas de estabilidade associados. Numa tentativa de evitar a instabilidade para as correntes de carga definidas e aumentar o PSRR do mesmo, é apresentado um método de implementação que tem como objectivo melhorar estas características, em que se pretende aumentar o rendimento e melhorar a resposta à variação da carga. No entanto, a técnica apresentada utiliza polarização adaptativa do estágio de potência, o que implica um aumento da corrente de consumo. O regulador LDO foi implementado na tecnologia CMOS UMC 0.18μm e ocupa uma área inferior a 0,2mm2. Os resultados da simulação mostram que o mesmo suporta uma transição de corrente 10μA para 100mA, com uma queda de tensão entre a tensão de alimentação e a tensão de saída inferior a 200mV. A estabilidade é assegurada para todas as correntes de carga. O tempo de estabelecimento é inferior a 6μs e as variações da tensão de saída relativamente a seu valor nominal são inferiores a 5mV. A corrente de consumo varia entre os 140μA até 200μA, o que permite atingir as especificações proposta para um PSRR de 40dB@10kHz.

Stabilization constraints from different-average public debt levels in a Monetary Union with country-size asymmetry

In the sequence of the recent financial and economic crisis, the recent public debt accumulation is expected to hamper considerably business cycle stabilization, by enlarging the budgetary consequences of the shocks. This paper analyses how the average level of public debt in a monetary union shapes optimal discretionary fiscal and monetary stabilization policies and affects stabilization welfare. We use a two-country micro-founded New-Keynesian model, where a benevolent central bank and the fiscal authorities play discretionary policy games under different union-average debt-constrained scenarios. We find that high debt levels shift monetary policy assignment from inflation to debt stabilization, making cooperation welfare superior to noncooperation. Moreover, when average debt is too high, welfare moves directly (inversely) with debt-to-output ratios for the union and the large country (small country) under cooperation. However, under non-cooperation, higher average debt levels benefit only the large country.