Confusão de línguas, trauma e hospitalidade em Sándor Ferenczi

Neste trabalho discutimos as ideias de confusão de línguas, de trauma e de hospitalidade no campo psicanalítico. Para Ferenczi, a relação adulto-criança é marcada por uma confusão decorrente de uma diferença de línguas, de forma que muitas vezes um não entende o outro. Nesse contexto, é possível a emergência do trauma patogênico. A experiência analítica, ao invés de levar o acontecimento traumático a domínios psíquicos melhores, pode reproduzir e até agravar o que foi vivido como catastrófico na infância. Neste sentido, o princípio de hospitalidade na clínica analítica é de suma importância para se evitar uma possível reprodução do trauma entre analista e analisando. Neste artigo utilizamos como referência principal a obra de Sándor Ferenczi, estabelecendo relações em alguns pontos com textos de Jacques Derrida e de Walter Benjamin, que discutem a origem da confusão de línguas e o problema da possibilidade da tradução.

Effects of Aedes aegypti salivary components on dendritic cell and lymphocyte biology

Abstract Background Saliva is a key element of interaction between hematophagous mosquitoes and their vertebrate hosts. In addition to allowing a successful blood meal by neutralizing or delaying hemostatic responses, the salivary cocktail is also able to modulate the effector mechanisms of host immune responses facilitating, in turn, the transmission of several types of microorganisms. Understanding how the mosquito uses its salivary components to circumvent host immunity might help to clarify the mechanisms of transmission of such pathogens and disease establishment. Methods Flow cytometry was used to evaluate if increasing concentrations of A. aegypti salivary gland extract (SGE) affects bone marrow-derived DC differentiation and maturation. Lymphocyte proliferation in the presence of SGE was estimated by a colorimetric assay. Western blot and Annexin V staining assays were used to assess apoptosis in these cells. Naïve and memory cells from mosquito-bite exposed mice or OVA-immunized mice and their respective controls were analyzed by flow cytometry. Results Concentration-response curves were employed to evaluate A. aegypti SGE effects on DC and lymphocyte biology. DCs differentiation from bone marrow precursors, their maturation and function were not directly affected by A. aegypti SGE (concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 40 μg/mL). On the other hand, lymphocytes were very sensitive to the salivary components and died in the presence of A. aegypti SGE, even at concentrations as low as 0.1 μg/mL. In addition, A. aegypti SGE was shown to induce apoptosis in all lymphocyte populations evaluated (CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and B cells) through a mechanism involving caspase-3 and caspase-8, but not Bim. By using different approaches to generate memory cells, we were able to verify that these cells are resistant to SGE effects. Conclusion Our results show that lymphocytes, and not DCs, are the primary target of A. aegypti salivary components. In the presence of A. aegypti SGE, naïve lymphocyte populations die by apoptosis in a caspase-3- and caspase-8-dependent pathway, while memory cells are selectively more resistant to its effects. The present work contributes to elucidate the activities of A. aegypti salivary molecules on the antigen presenting cell-lymphocyte axis and in the biology of these cells.

Natural blood feeding and temperature shift modulate the global transcriptional profile of Rickettsia rickettsii infecting its tick vector

Rickettsia rickettsii is an obligate intracellular tick-borne bacterium that causes Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF), the most lethal spotted fever rickettsiosis. When an infected starving tick begins blood feeding from a vertebrate host, R. rickettsii is exposed to a temperature elevation and to components in the blood meal. These two environmental stimuli have been previously associated with the reactivation of rickettsial virulence in ticks, but the factors responsible for this phenotype conversion have not been completely elucidated. Using customized oligonucleotide microarrays and high-throughput microfluidic qRT-PCR, we analyzed the effects of a 10 degrees C temperature elevation and of a blood meal on the transcriptional profile of R. rickettsii infecting the tick Amblyomma aureolatum. This is the first study of the transcriptome of a bacterium in the genus Rickettsia infecting a natural tick vector. Although both stimuli significantly increased bacterial load, blood feeding had a greater effect, modulating five-fold more genes than the temperature upshift. Certain components of the Type IV Secretion System (T4SS) were up-regulated by blood feeding. This suggests that this important bacterial transport system may be utilized to secrete effectors during the tick vector's blood meal. Blood feeding also up-regulated the expression of antioxidant enzymes, which might correspond to an attempt by R. rickettsii to protect itself against the deleterious effects of free radicals produced by fed ticks. The modulated genes identified in this study, including those encoding hypothetical proteins, require further functional analysis and may have potential as future targets for vaccine development.

A detailed description of an economical setup for electroporation of chick embryos in ovo

One of the challenges of the postgenomic era is characterizing the function and regulation of specific genes. For various reasons, the early chick embryo can easily be adopted as an in vivo assay of gene function and regulation. The embryos are robust, accessible, easily manipulated, and maintained in the laboratory. Genomic resources centered on vertebrate organisms increase daily. As a consequence of optimization of gene transfer protocols by electroporation, the chick embryo will probably become increasingly popular for reverse genetic analysis. The challenge of establishing chick embryonic electroporation might seem insurmountable to those who are unfamiliar with experimental embryological methods. To minimize the cost, time, and effort required to establish a chick electroporation assay method, we describe and illustrate in great detail the procedures involved in building a low-cost electroporation setup and the basic steps of electroporation

Effects of Aedes aegypti salivary components on dendritic cell and lymphocyte biology

BACKGROUND: Saliva is a key element of interaction between hematophagous mosquitoes and their vertebrate hosts. In addition to allowing a successful blood meal by neutralizing or delaying hemostatic responses, the salivary cocktail is also able to modulate the effector mechanisms of host immune responses facilitating, in turn, the transmission of several types of microorganisms. Understanding how the mosquito uses its salivary components to circumvent host immunity might help to clarify the mechanisms of transmission of such pathogens and disease establishment. METHODS: Flow cytometry was used to evaluate if increasing concentrations of A. aegypti salivary gland extract (SGE) affects bone marrow-derived DC differentiation and maturation. Lymphocyte proliferation in the presence of SGE was estimated by a colorimetric assay. Western blot and Annexin V staining assays were used to assess apoptosis in these cells. Naïve and memory cells from mosquito-bite exposed mice or OVA-immunized mice and their respective controls were analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Concentration-response curves were employed to evaluate A. aegypti SGE effects on DC and lymphocyte biology. DCs differentiation from bone marrow precursors, their maturation and function were not directly affected by A. aegypti SGE (concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 40 μg/mL). On the other hand, lymphocytes were very sensitive to the salivary components and died in the presence of A. aegypti SGE, even at concentrations as low as 0.1 μg/mL. In addition, A. aegypti SGE was shown to induce apoptosis in all lymphocyte populations evaluated (CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and B cells) through a mechanism involving caspase-3 and caspase-8, but not Bim. By using different approaches to generate memory cells, we were able to verify that these cells are resistant to SGE effects. CONCLUSION: Our results show that lymphocytes, and not DCs, are the primary target of A. aegypti salivary components. In the presence of A. aegypti SGE, naïve lymphocyte populations die by apoptosis in a caspase-3- and caspase-8-dependent pathway, while memory cells are selectively more resistant to its effects. The present work contributes to elucidate the activities of A. aegypti salivary molecules on the antigen presenting cell-lymphocyte axis and in the biology of these cells.

Genetic characterization and molecular identification of the bloodmeal sources of the potential bluetongue vector Culicoides obsoletus in the Canary Islands, Spain

[EN] Background: Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) biting midges are vectors for a diversity of pathogens including bluetongue virus (BTV) that generate important economic losses. BTV has expanded its range in recent decades, probably due to the expansion of its main vector and the presence of other autochthonous competent vectors. Although the Canary Islands are still free of bluetongue disease (BTD), Spain and Europe have had to face up to a spread of bluetongue with disastrous consequences. Therefore, it is essential to identify the distribution of biting midges and understand their feeding patterns in areas susceptible to BTD. To that end, we captured biting midges on two farms in the Canary Islands (i) to identify the midge species in question and characterize their COI barcoding region and (ii) to ascertain the source of their bloodmeals using molecular tools.Methods: Biting midges were captured using CDC traps baited with a 4-W blacklight (UV) bulb on Gran Canaria and on Tenerife. Biting midges were quantified and identified according to their wing patterns. A 688 bp segment of the mitochondrial COI gene of 20 biting midges (11 from Gran Canaria and 9 from Tenerife) were PCR amplified using the primers LCO1490 and HCO2198. Moreover, after selected all available females showing any rest of blood in their abdomen, a nested-PCR approach was used to amplify a fragment of the COI gene from vertebrate DNA contained in bloodmeals. The origin of bloodmeals was identified by comparison with the nucleotide-nucleotide basic alignment search tool (BLAST). Results: The morphological identification of 491 female biting midges revealed the presence of a single morphospecies belonging to the Obsoletus group. When sequencing the barcoding region of the 20 females used to check genetic variability, we identified two haplotypes differing in a single base. Comparison analysis using the nucleotide-nucleotide basic alignment search tool (BLAST) showed that both haplotypes belong to Culicoides obsoletus, a potential BTV vector. As well, using molecular tools we identified the feeding sources of 136 biting midges and were able to confirm that C. obsoletus females feed on goats and sheep on both islands.Conclusions: These results confirm that the feeding pattern of C. obsoletus is a potentially important factor in BTV transmission to susceptible hosts in case of introduction into the archipelago. Consequently, in the Canary Islands it is essential to maintain vigilance of Culicoides-transmitted viruses such as BTV and the novel Schmallenberg virus.

Bioimaging of animal embryogenesis: mathematical methods and computational algorithms

Some fundamental biological processes such as embryonic development have been preserved during evolution and are common to species belonging to different phylogenetic positions, but are nowadays largely unknown. The understanding of cell morphodynamics leading to the formation of organized spatial distribution of cells such as tissues and organs can be achieved through the reconstruction of cells shape and position during the development of a live animal embryo. We design in this work a chain of image processing methods to automatically segment and track cells nuclei and membranes during the development of a zebrafish embryo, which has been largely validates as model organism to understand vertebrate development, gene function and healingrepair mechanisms in vertebrates. The embryo is previously labeled through the ubiquitous expression of fluorescent proteins addressed to cells nuclei and membranes, and temporal sequences of volumetric images are acquired with laser scanning microscopy. Cells position is detected by processing nuclei images either through the generalized form of the Hough transform or identifying nuclei position with local maxima after a smoothing preprocessing step. Membranes and nuclei shapes are reconstructed by using PDEs based variational techniques such as the Subjective Surfaces and the Chan Vese method. Cells tracking is performed by combining informations previously detected on cells shape and position with biological regularization constraints. Our results are manually validated and reconstruct the formation of zebrafish brain at 7-8 somite stage with all the cells tracked starting from late sphere stage with less than 2% error for at least 6 hours. Our reconstruction opens the way to a systematic investigation of cellular behaviors, of clonal origin and clonal complexity of brain organs, as well as the contribution of cell proliferation modes and cell movements to the formation of local patterns and morphogenetic fields.

Meccanismi evolutivi dei parapoxvirus: caratterizzazione genomica di pseudocowpoxvirus e messa a punto di sistemi per lo studio delle ricombinazioni

The Poxviruses are a family of double stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that cause disease in many species, both vertebrate and invertebrate. Their genomes range in size from 135 to 365 kbp and show conservation in both organization and content. In particular, the central genomic regions of the chordopoxvirus subfamily (those capable of infecting vertebrates) contain 88 genes which are present in all the virus species characterised to date and which mostly occur in the same order and orientation. In contrast, however, the terminal regions of the genomes frequently contain genes that are species or genera-specific and that are not essential for the growth of the virus in vitro but instead often encode factors with important roles in vivo including modulation of the host immune response to infection and determination of the host range of the virus. The Parapoxviruses (PPV), of which Orf virus is the prototypic species, represent a genus within the chordopoxvirus subfamily of Poxviridae and are characterised by their ability to infect ruminants and humans. The genus currently contains four recognised species of virus, bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) both of which infect cattle, orf virus (OV) that infects sheep and goats, and parapoxvirus of red deer in New Zealand (PVNZ). The ORFV genome has been fully sequenced, as has that of BPSV, and is ~138 kb in length encoding ~132 genes. The vast majority of these genes allow the virus to replicate in the cytoplasm of the infected host cell and therefore encode proteins involved in replication, transcription and metabolism of nucleic acids. These genes are well conserved between all known genera of poxviruses. There is however another class of genes, located at either end of the linear dsDNA genome, that encode proteins which are non-essential for replication and generally dictate host range and virulence of the virus. The non-essential genes are often the most variable within and between species of virus and therefore are potentially useful for diagnostic purposes. Given their role in subverting the host-immune response to infection they are also targets for novel therapeutics. The function of only a relatively small number of these proteins has been elucidated and there are several genes whose function still remains obscure principally because there is little similarity between them and proteins of known function in current sequence databases. It is thought that by selectively removing some of the virulence genes, or at least neutralising the proteins in some way, current vaccines could be improved. The evolution of poxviruses has been proposed to be an adaptive process involving frequent events of gene gain and loss, such that the virus co-evolves with its specific host. Gene capture or horizontal gene transfer from the host to the virus is considered an important source of new viral genes including those likely to be involved in host range and those enabling the virus to interfere with the host immune response to infection. Given the low rate of nucleotide substitution, recombination can be seen as an essential evolutionary driving force although it is likely underestimated. Recombination in poxviruses is intimately linked to DNA replication with both viral and cellular proteins participate in this recombination-dependent replication. It has been shown, in other poxvirus genera, that recombination between isolates and perhaps even between species does occur, thereby providing another mechanism for the acquisition of new genes and for the rapid evolution of viruses. Such events may result in viruses that have a selective advantage over others, for example in re-infections (a characteristic of the PPV), or in viruses that are able to jump the species barrier and infect new hosts. Sequence data related to viral strains isolated from goats suggest that possible recombination events may have occurred between OV and PCPV (Ueda et al. 2003). The recombination events are frequent during poxvirus replication and comparative genomic analysis of several poxvirus species has revealed that recombinations occur frequently on the right terminal region. Intraspecific recombination can occur between strains of the same PPV species, but also interspecific recombination can happen depending on enough sequence similarity to enable recombination between distinct PPV species. The most important pre-requisite for a successful recombination is the coinfection of the individual host by different virus strains or species. Consequently, the following factors affecting the distribution of different viruses to shared target cells need to be considered: dose of inoculated virus, time interval between inoculation of the first and the second virus, distance between the marker mutations, genetic homology. At present there are no available data on the replication dynamics of PPV in permissive and non permissive hosts and reguarding co-infetions there are no information on the interference mechanisms occurring during the simultaneous replication of viruses of different species. This work has been carried out to set up permissive substrates allowing the replication of different PPV species, in particular keratinocytes monolayers and organotypic skin cultures. Furthermore a method to isolate and expand ovine skin stem cells was has been set up to indeep further aspects of viral cellular tropism during natural infection. The study produced important data to elucidate the replication dynamics of OV and PCPV virus in vitro as well as the mechanisms of interference that can arise during co-infection with different viral species. Moreover, the analysis carried on the genomic right terminal region of PCPV 1303/05 contributed to a better knowledge of the viral genes involved in host interaction and pathogenesis as well as to locate recombination breakpoints and genetic homologies between PPV species. Taken together these data filled several crucial gaps for the study of interspecific recombinations of PPVs which are thought to be important for a better understanding of the viral evolution and to improve the biosafety of antiviral therapy and PPV-based vectors.

Studies of OPA1 pathogenic mechanisms in Dominant Optic Atrophy and novel protein function in mitochondrial DNA stability

The mitochondrion is an essential cytoplasmic organelle that provides most of the energy necessary for eukaryotic cell physiology. Mitochondrial structure and functions are maintained by proteins of both mitochondrial and nuclear origin. These organelles are organized in an extended network that dynamically fuses and divides. Mitochondrial morphology results from the equilibrium between fusion and fission processes, controlled by a family of “mitochondria-shaping” proteins. It is becoming clear that defects in mitochondrial dynamics can impair mitochondrial respiration, morphology and motility, leading to apoptotic cell death in vitro and more or less severe neurodegenerative disorders in vivo in humans. Mutations in OPA1, a nuclear encoded mitochondrial protein, cause autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA), a heterogeneous blinding disease characterized by retinal ganglion cell degeneration leading to optic neuropathy (Delettre et al., 2000; Alexander et al., 2000). OPA1 is a mitochondrial dynamin-related guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) protein involved in mitochondrial network dynamics, cytochrome c storage and apoptosis. This protein is anchored or associated on the inner mitochondrial membrane facing the intermembrane space. Eight OPA1 isoforms resulting from alternative splicing combinations of exon 4, 4b and 5b have been described (Delettre et al., 2001). These variants greatly vary among diverse organs and the presence of specific isoforms has been associated with various mitochondrial functions. The different spliced exons encode domains included in the amino-terminal region and contribute to determine OPA1 functions (Olichon et al., 2006). It has been shown that exon 4, that is conserved throughout evolution, confers functions to OPA1 involved in maintenance of the mitochondrial membrane potential and in the fusion of the network. Conversely, exon 4b and exon 5b, which are vertebrate specific, are involved in regulation of cytochrome c release from mitochondria, and activation of apoptosis, a process restricted to vertebrates (Olichon et al., 2007). While Mgm1p has been identified thanks to its role in mtDNA maintenance, it is only recently that OPA1 has been linked to mtDNA stability. Missense mutations in OPA1 cause accumulation of multiple deletions in skeletal muscle. The syndrome associated to these mutations (DOA-1 plus) is complex, consisting of a combination of dominant optic atrophy, progressive external ophtalmoplegia, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia and deafness (Amati- Bonneau et al., 2008; Hudson et al., 2008). OPA1 is the fifth gene associated with mtDNA “breakage syndrome” together with ANT1, PolG1-2 and TYMP (Spinazzola et al., 2009). In this thesis we show for the first time that specific OPA1 isoforms associated to exon 4b are important for mtDNA stability, by anchoring the nucleoids to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Our results clearly demonstrate that OPA1 isoforms including exon 4b are intimately associated to the maintenance of the mitochondrial genome, as their silencing leads to mtDNA depletion. The mechanism leading to mtDNA loss is associated with replication inhibition in cells where exon 4b containing isoforms were down-regulated. Furthermore silencing of exon 4b associated isoforms is responsible for alteration in mtDNA-nucleoids distribution in the mitochondrial network. In this study it was evidenced that OPA1 exon 4b isoform is cleaved to provide a 10kd peptide embedded in the inner membrane by a second transmembrane domain, that seems to be crucial for mitochondrial genome maintenance and does correspond to the second transmembrane domain of the yeasts orthologue encoded by MGM1 or Msp1, which is also mandatory for this process (Diot et al., 2009; Herlan et al., 2003). Furthermore in this thesis we show that the NT-OPA1-exon 4b peptide co-immuno-precipitates with mtDNA and specifically interacts with two major components of the mitochondrial nucleoids: the polymerase gamma and Tfam. Thus, from these experiments the conclusion is that NT-OPA1- exon 4b peptide contributes to the nucleoid anchoring in the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is required for the initiation of mtDNA replication and for the distribution of nucleoids along the network. These data provide new crucial insights in understanding the mechanism involved in maintenance of mtDNA integrity, because they clearly demonstrate that, besides genes implicated in mtDNA replications (i.e. polymerase gamma, Tfam, twinkle and genes involved in the nucleotide pool metabolism), OPA1 and mitochondrial membrane dynamics play also an important role. Noticeably, the effect on mtDNA is different depending on the specific OPA1 isoforms down-regulated, suggesting the involvement of two different combined mechanisms. Over two hundred OPA1 mutations, spread throughout the coding region of the gene, have been described to date, including substitutions, deletions or insertions. Some mutations are predicted to generate a truncated protein inducing haploinsufficiency, whereas the missense nucleotide substitutions result in aminoacidic changes which affect conserved positions of the OPA1 protein. So far, the functional consequences of OPA1 mutations in cells from DOA patients are poorly understood. Phosphorus MR spectroscopy in patients with the c.2708delTTAG deletion revealed a defect in oxidative phosphorylation in muscles (Lodi et al., 2004). An energetic impairment has been also show in fibroblasts with the severe OPA1 R445H mutation (Amati-Bonneau et al., 2005). It has been previously reported by our group that OPA1 mutations leading to haploinsufficiency are associated in fibroblasts to an oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction, mainly involving the respiratory complex I (Zanna et al., 2008). In this study we have evaluated the energetic efficiency of a panel of skin fibroblasts derived from DOA patients, five fibroblast cell lines with OPA1 mutations causing haploinsufficiency (DOA-H) and two cell lines bearing mis-sense aminoacidic substitutions (DOA-AA), and compared with control fibroblasts. Although both types of DOA fibroblasts maintained a similar ATP content when incubated in a glucose-free medium, i.e. when forced to utilize the oxidative phosphorylation only to produce ATP, the mitochondrial ATP synthesis through complex I, measured in digitonin-permeabilized cells, was significantly reduced in cells with OPA1 haploinsufficiency only, whereas it was similar to controls in cells with the missense substitutions. Furthermore, evaluation of the mitochondrial membrane potential (DYm) in the two fibroblast lines DOA-AA and in two DOA-H fibroblasts, namely those bearing the c.2819-2A>C mutation and the c.2708delTTAG microdeletion, revealed an anomalous depolarizing response to oligomycin in DOA-H cell lines only. This finding clearly supports the hypothesis that these mutations cause a significant alteration in the respiratory chain function, which can be unmasked only when the operation of the ATP synthase is prevented. Noticeably, oligomycin-induced depolarization in these cells was almost completely prevented by preincubation with cyclosporin A, a well known inhibitor of the permeability transition pore (PTP). This results is very important because it suggests for the first time that the voltage threshold for PTP opening is altered in DOA-H fibroblasts. Although this issue has not yet been addressed in the present study, several are the mechanisms that have been proposed to lead to PTP deregulation, including in particular increased reactive oxygen species production and alteration of Ca2+ homeostasis, whose role in DOA fibroblasts PTP opening is currently under investigation. Identification of the mechanisms leading to altered threshold for PTP regulation will help our understanding of the pathophysiology of DOA, but also provide a strategy for therapeutic intervention.

Molekulare Evolution der Intermediärfilament-Proteine des Flussneunauges Lampetra fluviatilis

Über cDNA-Banken und RT-PCR wurden erstmals 15 Intermediärfilament-Proteine (IF-Proteine) des Flussneunauges Lampetra fluviatilis (Agnatha, kieferlose Wirbeltiere) kloniert und sequenziert: drei Typ I-Keratine, vier Typ II-Keratine, fünf keratinartige IF-Proteine (drei Kγ, zwei Kα), die Typ III-Proteine Vimentin und Desmin sowie ein Typ IV-Neurofilament-Protein (NF).Die IF-Proteine wurden aus verschiedenen Organen isoliert und durch zweidimensionale Polyacrylamid-Gelelektrophorese (2D-PAGE) aufgetrennt. Biochemische sowie massenspektrometrische Analysen anhand der 2D-PAGE ermöglichten in Kombination mit den Sequenzdaten die Identifizierung von Vimentin, Desmin sowie aller sequenzierten Keratine bis auf zwei der fünf Kα/Kγ-Proteine. Die meisten Keratine ließen sich darüber hinaus in die Kategorien „E“ (von „epidermal“) und „S“ (von „simple epithelial“) einteilen.Von den sequenzierten Keratinen ist das IIS-Keratin K8 wahrscheinlich ortholog zu den bekannten K8-Sequenzen höherer Vertebraten. Die Bezeichnung K18 für das einzige IS-Keratin des Neunauges in Anlehnung an das IS-Keratin K18 des Menschen basiert auf der stets beobachteten Koexpression mit K8 in einfachen Epithelien.Die Sequenz des Neunaugen-Vimentins zeigt große Übereinstimmungen mit den bekannten Desminsequenzen der Vertebraten. Die keratinartigen Proteine Kα und Kγ sind bis jetzt nur von Agnathen (Neunaugen und Schleimaale) bekannt.In molekularen Stammbäumen können K8, K18, Vimentin, Desmin und das NF_L des Neunauges gut als Außengruppe definiert werden.

Zur Evolution des Cytoskeletts beim Sibirischen Stör Acipenser baeri

Im Rahmen meiner Arbeit wurden erstmals die Intermediärfilament-Proteine (IF-Proteine) des Sibirischen Störs Acipenser baeri (Strahlenflosser, Knorpelganoid) kloniert und sequenziert. Aus einer cDNA-Bank konnten die Sequenzen von 13 IF-Proteine gewonnen werden. Von insgesamt zehn Keratinen codieren sieben für Typ I-Keratine und drei für Typ II. Zusätzlich konnten noch Desmin, Vimentin und ein Lamin identifiziert werden. Je einem Typ I- (K13) und einem Typ-II-Keratin (K2) fehlen wenige Aminosäuren in der Head-Domäne.Cytoskelett-Präparationen aus Epidermis, Mitteldarm, Magen und Kieme wurden mittels 2D-PAGE aufgetrennt. Durch Einsatz des CKBB-Test und Immunoblots wurden die verschiedenen Typ I und II-Keratine sowie Desmin und Vimentin identifiziert. Die gewebsspezifische Expression der Keratine ermöglichte zumeist ihre Einteilung in 'E' (epidermal) und 'S' ('simple epithelial').Die MALDI-MS-Analyse einer 2D-PAGE-Koelektrophorese von Seitenflosse und Mitteldarm zeigte, daß die 34 vorhandenen Proteinflecke auf nur 13 verschiedene IF-Proteine zurückgehen. Neun dieser Flecke konnten Sequenzen zugewiesen werden. Zusammen mit den verbleibenden vier Proteinflecken ergeben sich für den Stör nunmehr insgesamt 17 bekannte IF-Proteine. Von drei biochemisch identifizierten IS-Keratinen kommt eines nur im Mitteldarm vor und nur einem konnte eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden (K18). Dem einzigen Typ IIS-Keratin konnte keine Sequenz zugeordnet werden, wahrscheinlich handelt es sich um dabei um das K8-Orthologe. Jedem der fünf Typ IE-Proteine konnte eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden (K10 bis K14), ebenso wie dem einzigen identifizierten Typ IIE-Keratin (K2). Von den Typ III-Proteinen wurden Desmin und Vimentin ihren Proteinflecken zugeordnet. Die nicht zugeordnete Sequenz aba-k1 codiert möglicherweise für ein IIE-Keratin, während aba-k15 vermutlich die Sequenz für ein IE-Keratin enthält. Bei den Proteinflecken, denen eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden konnten, kann für Aba-K2 die Zugehörigkeit zum IIE-Typ angenommen werden, während es sich bei Aba-K10 wahrscheinlich um ein IE-Keratin handelt.Durch Datenbankvergleiche und molekulare Stammbäume konnte die Zugehörigkeit der identifizierten Lamin-Sequenz zum B3-Subtyp der Vertebraten gezeigt werden.Die Daten der Biochemie und indirekten Immunfluoreszenzmikroskopie zeigen, daß Keratine in Epithelien und Vimentin in mesenchymalen Geweben vorkommen. Es existieren starke Hinweise, daß im letzten Gewebetyp Keratine auch koexprimiert werden. Desmin kommt in großen Mengen im Magen und im Mitteldarm vor und stellt dort das prominenteste Protein.Mit den gewonnenen Sequenzdaten wurden molekulare Stammbäume und Sequenzidentitäten berechnet. Die daraus resultierenden Konsequenzen für die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der verschiedenen IF-Proteine sowie der Wirbeltiere werden diskutiert.

Molekulare Charakterisierung der Centrin-Isoformen in der Retina von Säugetieren

Centrine sind Mitglieder einer hoch konservierten Überfamilie von Ca2+-bindenden Proteinen mit EF-Hand Motiven. Bislang sind vier Centrin-Isoformen bei Säugern beschrieben worden, die in diversen Zellen in der Regel mit Centriolen von Centrosomen oder Centrosomen-verwandten Strukturen assoziiert sind. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden die vier Centrin-Isoformen bezüglich der Expression in verschiedenen Geweben untersucht. Dabei lag der Hauptfokus auf Untersuchungen der Centrine in den Photorezeptorzellen der Retina. Analysen auf subzellulärer Ebene brachten Klarheit über die differenzielle Lokalisation der verschiedenen Isoformen in der Retina. Mit Hilfe von verschiedenen Methoden konnten Wechselwirkungspartner in der Retina identifiziert werden, die eine Rolle in der visuellen Signaltransduktionskaskade spielen. Dabei könnten Centrine einem Regelmechanismus angehören, der wichtige Translokationsprozesse dieser Proteine regelt. In den Photorezeptorzellen der Säugetierretina werden die vier Isoformen exprimiert, die in den Strukturen des Cilienapparates differenziell lokalisiert sind. Dabei beschränkt sich ihre Lokalisation entweder auf den Basalkörper (Centrin 4), auf das Verbindungscilium (Centrin 1) oder sie sind in beiden Strukturen zu finden (Centrin 2 und 3). In den nicht- Photorezeptorzellen der Retina sind die Isoformen Centrin 2 und 3 zudem an den Centriolen der Centrosomen lokalisiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass alle Centrin-Isoformen in ein und derselben Zelle, der Photorezeptorzelle, koexprimiert werden und dabei subzellulär kolokalisiert sind. Im Weiteren konnte die ubiquitäre Expression von Centrin 2 und 3 in allen untersuchten Geweben an Centrosomen bestätigt werden. Centrin 1 und 4 hingegen werden nur in Geweben mit Cilien-tragenden Zellen exprimiert. Die Funktion der Centrine wird nicht nur durch Bindung von Ca2+, sondern auch durch Phosphorylierungen reguliert. Alle Sequenzen der Centrine weisen diverse mögliche Phosphorylierungsstellen für unterschiedliche Proteinkinasen auf. Die Ergebnisse aller durchgeführten in vitro und ex vivo Phosphorylierungs „Assays“ zeigen eine licht-abhängige Phosphorylierung der Centrin-Isoformen in der Retina. Dabei war in der dunkel-adaptierten Retina die Phosphorylierung vor allem von Centrin 1 und 2 erhöht. Weiterführende Experimente mit Kinase-Inhibitoren wiesen darauf hin, dass vor allem die Proteinkinase CKII eine bedeutende Rolle bei der Centrin-Phosphorylierung in der Retina einnimmt. Centrine sind die ersten Cytoskelettkomponenten, deren Phosphorylierungsgrad lichtabhängig moduliert wird. Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf einen Signalweg, der zwischen der visuellen Signaltransduktionskaskade und der Regulation der Centrin-Aktivität vermittelt, hin. Bei der Suche nach Centrin-Bindungspartnern gelang mit Hilfe von Centrin 1 Blot „Overlay Assays“ der Durchbruch. Der neuartige Ansatz zeigte, dass ausschließlich Ca2+-aktiviertes Centrin 1 mit Proteinen aus der Retina interagierte. Nach der Identifikation eines 37 kDa-Proteins als die β-Untereinheit des visuellen G-Proteins Transducin wurden die Untersuchungen auf diesen Interaktionspartner fokussiert. Die Ergebnisse der hier durchgeführten biochemischen und biophysikalischen Protein-Protein Interaktionsexperimente zeigen insgesamt folgendes: ⇒ Alle vier Centrine interagieren mit Transducin, wobei Centrin 3 die geringste Affinität zu Transducin hat. ⇒ Die Assemblierung der Centrin•G-Protein-Komplexe ist strikt Ca2+-abhängig. ⇒ Die Centrine binden sowohl an das isolierte Gtβγ-Heterodimer als auch an den heterotrimeren Gt-holo-Proteinkomplex, nicht aber an Gtα. Die quantitativen immunoelektronenmikroskopischen Analysen zeigen im Weiteren, dass sich die Komplexe aus Transducin und Centrin 1 bis 3 wahrscheinlich in einer Subdomäne des Verbindungsciliums der Photorezeptorzellen ausbilden. Dabei dürfte die Ausbildung der Komplexe an der Regulation der lichtinduzierten Translokation von Transducin zwischen Innen- und Außensegment der Photorezeptorzellen beteiligt sein. Dieser Translokationsmechanismus wird als ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Langzeitadaption der Signaltransduktionskaskade der Säugerretina diskutiert. Der neuartige Regelmechanismus der molekularen Translokationen, in dem Centrine involviert sind, ist außergewöhnlich und dürfte über die speziellen Photorezeptorzellen hinaus von weit reichender Bedeutung sein.

Detailed analyses of mutations affecting structural formation of neuromuscular synapses in Drosophila melanogaster

The establishment of appropriate synapses between neurons and their target cells is an essential requirement for the formation of functional neuronal circuits. However, there is very little insight into the mechanisms underlying de novo formation of synapses and synaptic terminals. To identify novel genes involved in signalling or structural aspects of these processes I capitalised on possibilities provided by the model organism Drosophila. Thus, I contributed to a screen of a collection of third chromosomal mutations (Salzberg et al., 1997, Genetics 147, 1723ff.) selecting those mutant strains displaying structural defects of Drosophila neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). Carrying out genetic mapping experiments, I could assign 7 genes to interesting candidate mutations. All 7 mutations selected in this process cause size alterations of the embryonic NMJ, and one shows additional disturbances in the distribution of synaptic markers. 4 of these turned out to be transcription factors, not falling into the remit of this project. Only for one of these, the neuronal transcription factor Castor, I could show that its overgrown mutant NMJ phenotype is due to an increase in the number of motorneurons. The remaining genes encode a potential nitrophenylphosphatase, the translation initiation factor eIF4AIII, and a novel protein Waharan. Unfortunately, the nitophenylphosphatase gene was identified too late to carry out functional studies in the context of this project, but potential roles are discussed. eIF4AIII promotes NMJ size tempting to speculate that local translation at the NMJ is affected. I found that the synaptic scaffolding molecule Discs large (Dlg; orthologue of PSD95) is upregulated at eIF4AIII mutant NMJs. Targeted upregulation of Dlg can not mimic the eIF4AIII mutant phenotype, but dlg mutations suppress it. Therefore, Dlg function is required but not sufficient in this context. My findings are discussed in detail, pointing out future directions. The main focus of this work is the completely novel gene waharan (wah), an orthologue of the human gene KIAA1267 encoding a big brain protein of likewise unknown structure and function. My studies show that mutations or RNAi knock-down of wah cause NMJ overgrowth and reveal additional crucial roles in the patterning of wing imginal discs. RNAi studies suggest Wah to be required pre- and postsynaptically at NMJs and, consistently, wah is transcribed in the nervous system and muscles. Anti-Wah antisera were produced but could no longer be tested here, but preliminary studies with newly generated HA-targeted constructs suggest that Wah localises at NMJs and in neuronal nuclei. In silico analyses predict Wah to be structurally related to the Rad23-family of proteins, likely to target ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome for degradation (Chen et al., 2002, Mol Cell Biol 22, 4902ff.) . In agreement with this prediction, poly-ubiquitinated proteins were found to accumulate in the absence of wah function, and wah-like mutant phenotypes were induced in NMJs and wing discs by knocking down proteasome function. My analysis further revealed that poly-ubiquitinated proteins are reduced in nuclei of wah mutant neurons and muscles, suggesting that Wah may play additional roles in ubiquitin-mediated nuclear import. Taken together, this study has uncovered a number of interesting candidate genes required for the de novo formation of Drosophila NMJs. 3 of these genes fell into the focus of this project. As discussed in detail, discovery of these genes and insights gained into their function have high potential to be translatable into vertebrate systems.

Das Globingen-Repertoire von Amphibien und Teleostiern

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde die molekulare Evolution von Globinen in Amphibien und Teleostiern untersucht und Analysen zur Genexpression ausgewählter Globine durchgeführt. Die bisher besonders für die neueren Mitglieder der Superfamilie der Globine – Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin – schwerpunktmäßig in Mammaliern erbrachten Daten sollten durch die Analyse in Amphibien und Teleostiern auf ihre generelle Gültigkeit für Vertebraten überprüft werden. Die Analysen zur Genexpression wurden sowohl in silico, basierend auf genomischen wie EST-Daten, als auch experimentell durch qualitative und quantitative RT-PCR-Nachweise durchgeführt. Die mRNA-Lokalisation wurde durch in situ-Hybridisierungen an Gewebeschnitten beziehungsweise durch Whole mount in situ-Hybridisierung an ganzen Embryonen detektiert. In einem ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Globin-Repertoire von Xenopus tropicalis umfassend analysiert. Die Expressionsanalyse der gefundenen Globine umfasste nicht nur adulte Tiere, sonder erstmals auch detailliert die Entwicklungsstadien eines Vertebraten. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die vorwiegend neuronale Expression des streng konservierten Neuroglobins ein generelles Charakteristikum aller Tetrapoden ist und bereits in der frühembryonalen Entwicklung auftritt. Auch für das als Einzelkopie im Amphibiengenom vertretene Cytoglobin konnte eine strenge Sequenzkonservierung gezeigt werden. Das Expressionsmuster des Amphibien-Cytoglobins stimmte mit dem aus Mammaliern bekannten überein und zeigte konservierte Charakteristika dieses Globins bei Tetrapoden auf. Die Analyse des Xenopus-Genoms ergab zudem, dass Krallenfrösche nicht über Myoglobin verfügen. Genomische Vergleiche syntäner Genregionen ließen auf Rearrangements in diesem Genombereich im Verlauf der Evolution schließen, in deren Folge das Myoglobingen in den Krallenfröschen deletiert wurde. Die Hämoglobine wurden in Xenopus tropicalis erstmals in einem Amphibium umfassend analysiert. Die Gene zeigten demnach eine geclusterte Anordnung: der tropische Krallenfrosch verfügte über je ein funktionelles α- bzw. β-adultes und sieben bzw. vier α- bzw. β-larvale Hämoglobine, die während der Entwicklung bzw. in adulten Tieren charakteristisch exprimiert wurden. Die Analyse der Hämoglobine hinsichtlich ihrer Lage in einem Cluster, ihrer phylogenetischen Relation zueinander und nicht zuletzt ihres Expressionsmusters ließen Rückschlüsse auf ihre Evolution zu. Zusätzlich zu diesen bereits bekannten Globinen konnte im Rahmen dieser Dissertation das Globingen-Repertoirs von Xenopus um zwei weitere, bisher unbekannte Globine erweitert werden. Diese wurden entsprechend ihrer bisher unbekannten Funktion als GlobinX und GlobinY bezeichnet. Während GlobinY bisher ausschließlich in Amphibien nachgewiesen werden konnte, wurde GlobinX zudem in Teleostiern detektiert und repräsentiert damit ein auf Anamnia beschränktes Globin. Die rekombinante Proteinexpression von Neuroglobin, Cytoglobin, GlobinX und GlobinY des tropischen Krallenfrosches zeigte ein hexakoordiniertes Bindungsschema dieser Globine in ihrem Deoxy-Zustand. In einem zweiten Teil dieser Dissertation wurden Neuroglobin und Cytoglobin in Teleostiern untersucht und die Analyse für diese zwei Gene somit über die Tetrapoden hinaus auf den gesamten Stammbaum der Vertebraten ausgedehnt. Dabei wurde deutlich, dass die vorwiegend neuronale Expression des seit 420 Millionen Jahren streng konservierten Neuroglobins ein generelles Merkmal dieses Globins in allen Vertebraten ist. Der in Amphibien und Teleostiern erbrachte und mit Ergebnissen in Mammaliern übereinstimmende Nachweis von Neuroglobin in neuronalen Geweben mit einem hohen Stoffwechsel lässt derzeit eine Funktion dieses Globins im Sauerstoffmetabolimus als wahrscheinlich erscheinen. Ob Neuroglobin dabei als kurzzeitiger Sauerstoffspeicher, O2-Transoprter oder aber in der Detoxifikation reaktiver Sauerstoff- bzw. Stickstoffspezies agiert, bleibt zu untersuchen. Für Cytoglobin konnte eine offenbar alle Teleostier betreffende Genduplikation nachgewiesen werden. Phylogenetische Analysen zeigen die Monophylie der Vertebraten-Cytoglobine. Der Vergleich der paralogen Cytoglobine der Teleostier mit dem syntänen Genombereich des humanen Cytoglobins zeigte die wahrscheinliche Entstehung der Fisch-Cytoglobine durch eine Genomduplikation in einem Vorfahren aller Teleostier vor etwa 300-450 Millionen Jahren. Die paralogen Cytoglobine zeigten in Danio rerio und Tetraodon nigroviridis differierende, charakteristische Expressionsmuster, die mit der Theorie der Subfunktionalisierung von Genen in Folge eines Duplikationsereignisses kompatibel sind. Die Analyse zeigte, dass Cygb-1 prädominant in Gehirn und Herz exprimiert wurde, Cygb-2 hingegen bevorzugt in Gehirn und Auge. Dies bestätigte indirekt die Hypothese, nach der das Cytoglobin der Mammalier zwei unterschiedliche Funktionen in differenten Geweben wahrnimmt. Die rekombinante Expression von Cygb-1 des Zebrabärblings zeigte zudem, das auch dieses Globin in seiner Deoxy-Form über ein hexakoordiniertes Bindungsschema verfügt.

Charakterisierung funktioneller Domänen von Centrin-Isoformen

Centrine sind kleine Ca2+-bindende Proteine aus der Familie der EF-Hand Proteine. Erstmals wurden Centrine als Hauptbestandteil der kontraktilen Flagellenwurzeln von Grünalgen beschrieben. Mittlerweile konnten Centrine in nahezu allen eukaryotischen Organismen nachgewiesen werden. In Säugetieren wurden bis zu vier Isoformen identifiziert, die an Centrosomen oder davon abgeleiteten Strukturen, wie Spindelpolkörpern und Basalkörper, aber auch in Übergangszonen von Cilien exprimiert werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Centrine im zellulären Kontext der Photorezeptorzellen nicht nur durch die Bindung von Ca2+ reguliert werden, sondern auch durch reversible Phosphorylierungen. Die Phosphorylierung der Centrin-Isoformen findet in der Retina von Vertebraten lichtabhängig während der Dunkeladaption statt. Die Protein Kinase CK2 (CK2) ist für die beschriebenen lichtabhängigen Phosphorylierungen hauptverantwortlich. Obwohl alle Centrin-Isoformen mehrere mögliche Zielsequenzen für die CK2 besitzen, kommt es nur zur Phosphorylierung einer einzigen Aminosäure in Cen1p, Cen2p und Cen4p. Im Gegensatz dazu stellt die Isoform Cen3p kein Substrat für die CK2 dar. Zudem wurden hier erstmals Phosphatasen identifiziert, die in der Lage sind Centrine zu dephosphorylieren. Die Dephosphorylierung durch die PP2Cund PP2C ist sehr spezifisch, da keine andere Phosphatase der Retina die CK2-vermittelte Phosphorylierung der Centrine rückgängig machen kann. Hoch auflösende licht- und elektronenmikroskopische Analysen zeigten erstmals, dass die Centrine sowohl mit der CK2 als auch mit der PP2C im Verbindungscilium der Photorezeptorzellen colokalisiert sind. Cen1p und CK2 sind in der Lage, direkt an Mikrotubuli zu binden, was die notwendige räumliche Nähe zwischen Enzymen und Substrat herstellt. Bisherige Arbeiten zeigten, dass alle Centrine Ca2+-abhängig mit dem visuellen G-Protein Transducin interagieren. Diese Wechselwirkung dürfte an der Regulation der lichtabhängigen Translokation des visuellen G-Proteins Transducin zwischen dem Außen- und dem Innensegment der Photorezeptorzelle beteiligt sein. In der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigten Interaktionsstudien, dass die Bindungsaffinitäten der Centrine für Transducin durch die CK2-vermittelte Phosphorylierung drastisch verringert wurden. Dieser beobachtete Effekt beruht auf deutlich verringerten Ca2+-Affinitäten der Centrin-Isoformen nach der CK2-vermittelten Phosphorylierung. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein neuartiger Regulationsmechanismus der Centrine in den Photorezeptorzellen der Vertebraten beschrieben. Centrine werden nicht nur durch Ca2+-Bindung zur Bildung von Protein Komplexen stimuliert, sondern durch die Phosphorylierung zum Auflösen dieser Komplexe angeregt. Damit reguliert die CK2-vermittelte, lichtabhängige Phosphorylierung der Centrine möglicherweise ebenfalls die adaptive Translokation des visuellen G-Proteins Transducin zwischen dem Außen- und Innensegment der Photorezeptorzellen.