Retinal projections and neurochemical characterization of the pregeniculate nucleus of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and the intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) are the main components of the circadian timing system. The SCN is the site of the endogenous biological clock that generates rhythms and synchronizes them to environmental cues. The IGL is a key structure that modulates SCN activity and is responsible for the transmission of non-photic information to the SCN, thus participating in the integration between photic and non-photic stimuli. Both the SCN and IGL receive projections of retinal ganglion cells and the IGL is connected to the SCN through the geniculohypothalamic tract. Little is known about these structures in the primate brain and the pregeniculate nucleus (PGN) has been suggested to be the primate equivalent of the rodent IGL. The aim of this study was to characterize the PGN of a primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), and to analyze its retinal afferents. Here, the marmoset PGN was found to be organized into three subsectors based on neuronal size, pattern of retinal projections, and the distribution of neuropeptide Y-, GAD-, serotonin-, enkephalin- and substance P-labeled terminals. This pattern indicates that the marmoset PGN is equivalent to the IGL. This detailed description contributes to the understanding of the circadian timing system in this primate species considering the importance of the IGL within the context of circadian regulation. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A quantitative view of the transcriptome of Schistosoma mansoni adult-worms using SAGE

Abstract Background Five species of the genus Schistosoma, a parasitic trematode flatworm, are causative agents of Schistosomiasis, a disease that is endemic in a large number of developing countries, affecting millions of patients around the world. By using SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) we describe here the first large-scale quantitative analysis of the Schistosoma mansoni transcriptome, one of the most epidemiologically relevant species of this genus. Results After extracting mRNA from pooled male and female adult-worms, a SAGE library was constructed and sequenced, generating 68,238 tags that covered more than 6,000 genes expressed in this developmental stage. An analysis of the ordered tag-list shows the genes of F10 eggshell protein, pol-polyprotein, HSP86, 14-3-3 and a transcript yet to be identified to be the five top most abundant genes in pooled adult worms. Whereas only 8% of the 100 most abundant tags found in adult worms of S. mansoni could not be assigned to transcripts of this parasite, 46.9% of the total ditags could not be mapped, demonstrating that the 3 sequence of most of the rarest transcripts are still to be identified. Mapping of our SAGE tags to S. mansoni genes suggested the occurrence of alternative-polyadenylation in at least 13 gene transcripts. Most of these events seem to shorten the 3 UTR of the mRNAs, which may have consequences over their stability and regulation. Conclusion SAGE revealed the frequency of expression of the majority of the S. mansoni genes. Transcriptome data suggests that alternative polyadenylation is likely to be used in the control of mRNA stability in this organism. When transcriptome was compared with the proteomic data available, we observed a correlation of about 50%, suggesting that both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation are important for determining protein abundance in S. mansoni. The generation of SAGE tags from other life-cycle stages should contribute to reveal the dynamics of gene expression in this important parasite.

Linguistica Cognitiva e analisi retorica: indicazioni per un percorso sulla metafora nella didattica della lingua.

La tesi sviluppa le proposte teoriche della Linguistica Cognitiva a proposito della metafora e propone una loro possibile applicazione in ambito didattico. La linguistica cognitiva costituisce la cornice interpretativa della ricerca, a partire dai suoi concetti principali: la prospettiva integrata, l’embodiment, la centralità della semantica, l’attenzione per la psicolinguistica e le neuroscienze. All’interno di questo panorama, prende vigore un’idea di metafora come punto d’incontro tra lingua e pensiero, come criterio organizzatore delle conoscenze, strumento conoscitivo fondamentale nei processi di apprendimento. A livello didattico, la metafora si rivela imprescindibile sia come strumento operativo che come oggetto di riflessione. L’approccio cognitivista può fornire utili indicazioni su come impostare un percorso didattico sulla metafora. Nel presente lavoro, si indaga in particolare l’uso didattico di stimoli non verbali nel rafforzamento delle competenze metaforiche di studenti di scuola media. Si è scelto come materiale di partenza la pubblicità, per due motivi: il diffuso impiego di strategie retoriche in ambito pubblicitario e la specificità comunicativa del genere, che permette una chiara disambiguazione di fenomeni che, in altri contesti, non potrebbero essere analizzati con la stessa univocità. Si presenta dunque un laboratorio finalizzato al miglioramento della competenza metaforica degli studenti che si avvale di due strategie complementari: da una parte, una spiegazione ispirata ai modelli cognitivisti, sia nella terminologia impiegata che nella modalità di analisi (di tipo usage-based); dall’altra un training con metafore visive in pubblicità, che comprende una fase di analisi e una fase di produzione. È stato usato un test, suddiviso in compiti specifici, per oggettivare il più possibile i progressi degli studenti alla fine del training, ma anche per rilevare le difficoltà e i punti di forza nell’analisi rispetto sia ai contesti d’uso (letterario e convenzionale) sia alle forme linguistiche assunte dalla metafora (nominale, verbale, aggettivale).

Lo spazio senso-motorio come rappresentazione dei comportamenti intersoggettivi. Una nuova ipotesi sperimentale dalla filosofia alle neuroscienze

La ricerca ha preso le mosse da tre ipotesi fondamentali: 1) Esiste un legame tra processi cognitivi di basso ed alto livello; 2) Lo spazio senso-motorio è una percezione soggettiva; 3) Lo spazio senso-motorio varia in funzione delle diverse modalità di interazione sociale. La tesi sostiene che lo spazio senso-motorio si lascia modulare dalla semplice co-presenza di un altro agente umano e da interazioni cooperative e non cooperative. I capitoli I, II, III, hanno lo scopo di scomporre e spiegare il significato della prima, seconda e terza ipotesi; giungendo a formulare la tesi centrale che sarà poi dimostrata sperimentalmente nel capitolo IV. Il capitolo V introduce future linee di ricerca nell’ambito dell’etica proponendo una nuova ipotesi sul legame che potrebbe sussistere tra la percezione dello spazio durante l’interazione sociale e i giudizi morali. Il lavoro svolto chiama ad operare insieme diverse discipline che concorrono a formare le scienze cognitive: la storia della filosofia, la filosofia della mente contemporanea, la neuropsicologia sperimentale ed alcuni temi della psicologia sociale.

Synthese, Evaluierung und 18 F-Markierung von neuen Liganden zur Visualisierung der Strychnin-insensitiven Bindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors

Glutamat ist der wichtigste exzitatorische Neurotransmitter im Gehirn. Folglich spielen Glutamat-kontrollierte Rezeptorsysteme eine entscheidende Rolle in neurologischen Vorgängen, wie beispielsweise in Lern- und Gedächtnisprozessen. Gerade der NMDA-Rezeptor ist in eine Vielzahl solcher Vorgänge involviert und wird vor allem mit neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen wie Chorea Huntington, Morbus Alzheimer, Morbus Parkinson und zerebraler Ischämie in Verbindung gebracht. Folglich stellt die Visualisierung des NMDA-Rezeptorstatus eine Möglichkeit dar, den Verlauf solcher Prozesse zu untersuchen.rnDie Positronen-Emissions-Tomographie (PET) ist eine leistungsstarke Anwendung in der molekularen Bildgebung und erlaubt die in vivo-Visualisierung sowie Quantifizierung biochemischer Prozesse. Durch die Verwendung geeigneter Tracer können bestimmte pathologische und neurologische Abläufe beurteilt werden. rnZurzeit sind keine geeigneten PET-Tracer zur Untersuchung des NMDA-Rezeptors verfügbar. Bisher dargestellte PET-Liganden zeichneten sich durch nicht zufriedenstellende Affinitäten und Selektivitäten aus und führten meist auf Grund der hohen Lipophilie zu einem hohen Maß an unspezifischer Bindung. rnDie Strychnin-insensitive Glycinbindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors stellt ein vielversprechendes Target dar, spezifische Liganden für diese Bindungsstelle zu synthetisieren. Hier zeichnen sich einige Verbindungsklassen durch exzellente Affinitäten und Selektivitäten sowie durch vielversprechende in vivo-Eigenschaften aus. rnAuf Grundlage dieser biologischen Daten wurden zwei Substanzen der 2-Indolcarbonsäure, nämlich die 4,6-Dichlor-3-(2-oxo-3-phenylimidazolidin-1-ylmethyl)-1H-indol-2-carbonsäure (MDJ-114) und die (E)-4,6-Dichlor-3-(2-phenylcarbamoylvinyl)-1H-indol-2-carbonsäure (GV150526), als Leitstruktur gewählt. Ferner wurde das 7-Chlor-4-hydroxy-3-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-chinolin-2-on (L-701,324) aus der Substanzklasse der 4-Hydroxy-1H-chinolin-2-one als dritte Leitstruktur gewählt.rnFür diese Substanzen wurden 19F-markierte Analogverbindungen synthetisiert, um als inaktive Referenzverbindungen auf ihre Eignung überprüft zu werden. Hierzu wurde eine Fluorethoxygruppierung im terminalen Phenylring der entsprechenden Leitstruktur eingeführt. Durch Variation der Fluorethoxysubstitution in ortho-, meta- und para-Stellung, konnten die besten Affinitäten in einem kompetitiven Rezeptorbindungsassay durch Verdrängung von [3H]MDL-105,519 bestimmt werden. Als Maß für die Lipophilie wurden die entsprechenden log D-Werte über die HPLC-Methode bestimmt. Basierend auf den Ergebnissen der Evaluierung wurden zwei Derivate identifiziert, welche zur 18F-Markierung genutzt werden sollten (GV150526-Derivat 34: log D = 0,23 ± 0,03, IC50 = 0,20 ± 0,25 µM, Ki = 0,13 ± 0,16 µM; L701,324-Derivat 55: log D = - 0,25 ± 0,01, IC50 = 78 ± 37 µM, Ki = 51 ± 24 µM). Die 18F-Markierung erfolgte durch die Reaktion des entsprechenden Markierungsvorläufers mit dem Markierungssynthon 2-[18F]Fluorethyltosylat, welches durch die Umsetzung von Ethylenditosylat mit [18F]Fluorid hergestellt wurde. Die Radiosynthesen der beiden 18F-markierten Verbindungen [18F]34 (4,6-Dichlor-3-{2-[4-(2-[18F]fluorethoxy)-phenylcarbamoyl]-vinyl}-1H-indol-2-carbonsäure) und [18F]55 (7-Chlor-3-{3-[4-(2-[18F]fluorethoxy)-phenoxy]-phenyl}-4-hydroxy-1H-chinolin-2-on) wurden optimiert sowie semipräparative Abtrennverfahren entwickelt. Beide Tracer wurden auf ihre in vivo-Eignung im µPET-Experiment untersucht. Die Zeitaktivitätskurven lassen erkennen, dass beide Tracer entgegen der Erwartung nicht die Blut-Hirn-Schranke überwinden können. Für das GV150526-Derivat ([18F]34) wurden zusätzlich Autoradiographiestudien durchgeführt. Die erhaltenen Aufnahmen zeigten ein heterogenes Verteilungsmuster der Aktivitätsanreicherung. Ebenso wurde ein hohes Maß an unspezifischer Bindung beobachtet. Möglicherweise sind Cross-Affinitäten zu anderen Rezeptorsystemen oder der recht hohe lipophile Rest des Moleküls hierfür verantwortlich. Ein Grund für die unzureichende Hirngängigkeit der Radioliganden kann sich in der Carboxylatfunktion des GV150526-Derivats bzw. in der 4-Hydroxy-1H-chinolin-2-on-Einheit des L-701,324-Derivats wiederspiegeln. rnAuf Grundlage dieser Resultate können Versuche unternommen werden, für die Verbindungsklasse der 2-Indolcarbonsäuren entsprechende Ester als Prodrugs mit einer verbesserten Bioverfügbarkeit darzustellen. Ebenso können neue Strukturen als Grundlage für neue PET-Tracer untersucht werden.rnrn

Spatio-temporal credit assignment in population learning

Learning by reinforcement is important in shaping animal behavior. But behavioral decision making is likely to involve the integration of many synaptic events in space and time. So in using a single reinforcement signal to modulate synaptic plasticity a twofold problem arises. Different synapses will have contributed differently to the behavioral decision and, even for one and the same synapse, releases at different times may have had different effects. Here we present a plasticity rule which solves this spatio-temporal credit assignment problem in a population of spiking neurons. The learning rule is spike time dependent and maximizes the expected reward by following its stochastic gradient. Synaptic plasticity is modulated not only by the reward but by a population feedback signal as well. While this additional signal solves the spatial component of the problem, the temporal one is solved by means of synaptic eligibility traces. In contrast to temporal difference based approaches to reinforcement learning, our rule is explicit with regard to the assumed biophysical mechanisms. Neurotransmitter concentrations determine plasticity and learning occurs fully online. Further, it works even if the task to be learned is non-Markovian, i.e. when reinforcement is not determined by the current state of the system but may also depend on past events. The performance of the model is assessed by studying three non-Markovian tasks. In the first task the reward is delayed beyond the last action with non-related stimuli and actions appearing in between. The second one involves an action sequence which is itself extended in time and reward is only delivered at the last action, as is the case in any type of board-game. The third is the inspection game that has been studied in neuroeconomics. It only has a mixed Nash equilibrium and exemplifies that the model also copes with stochastic reward delivery and the learning of mixed strategies.

Reinforcement learning in dendritic structures

The discovery of binary dendritic events such as local NMDA spikes in dendritic subbranches led to the suggestion that dendritic trees could be computationally equivalent to a 2-layer network of point neurons, with a single output unit represented by the soma, and input units represented by the dendritic branches. Although this interpretation endows a neuron with a high computational power, it is functionally not clear why nature would have preferred the dendritic solution with a single but complex neuron, as opposed to the network solution with many but simple units. We show that the dendritic solution has a distinguished advantage over the network solution when considering different learning tasks. Its key property is that the dendritic branches receive an immediate feedback from the somatic output spike, while in the corresponding network architecture the feedback would require additional backpropagating connections to the input units. Assuming a reinforcement learning scenario we formally derive a learning rule for the synaptic contacts on the individual dendritic trees which depends on the presynaptic activity, the local NMDA spikes, the somatic action potential, and a delayed reinforcement signal. We test the model for two scenarios: the learning of binary classifications and of precise spike timings. We show that the immediate feedback represented by the backpropagating action potential supplies the individual dendritic branches with enough information to efficiently adapt their synapses and to speed up the learning process.

More than Tunes in Your Head: Dynamic Aspects of Auditory Imagery for Music

Auditory imagery is more than just mental “replaying” of tunes in one’s head. I will review several studies that capture characteristics of complex and active imagery tasks, using both behavioral and neuroscience approaches. I use behavioral methods to capture people’s ability to make emotion judgments about both heard and imagined music in real time. My neuroimaging studies look at the neural correlates of encoding an imagined melody, anticipating an upcoming tune, and also imagining tunes backwards. Several studies show voxel-by-voxel correlates of neural activity with self-report of imagery vividness. These studies speak to the ways in which musical imagery allows us not just to remember music, but also how we use those memories to judge temporally changing aspects of the musical experience.

Responses to Central Oxotremorine and Scopolamine Support the Cholinergic Control of Male Mating Behavior in Hamsters

The responses of hamsters to intracranial injections of the cholinergic agonist oxotremorine (OXO) implicate cholinergic mechanisms in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) in the control of male mating behavior. To extend these observations, we ran three studies of responses to cholinergic drugs delivered singly or in combination to the vicinity of the MPOA. The first tested responses to OXO, confirming its ability to reduce the postejaculatory interval. The second complemented the first by examining responses to MPOA microinjections of the cholinergic antagonist scopolamine (SCO). These caused several changes revolving around intromission. These included increases in intromission frequency and ejaculation latency. They also included a change in the patterning of intromissions, marked by continuous strings without the usual separation by dismounts. The final study resembled the others in examining the effects of MPOA injections of OXO and SCO but focused on the ability of each drug to antagonize responses to the other. Most of the responses to OXO and SCO individually replicated earlier findings, though the measures examined here also permitted the description of effects on some noncopulatory sexual behaviors, specifically the male's inspection of the female. However, the most interesting results may be those suggesting asymmetry in the responses to the addition of the second drug: Whereas responses to OXO tended to be antagonized by SCO, OXO was less effective at counteracting responses to SCO. Though the explanation of this asymmetry is not completely clear, it is consistent with previous suggestions of differences in the affinities of these drugs for subtypes of muscarinic receptors. Therefore, it suggests that the cholinergic synapses and circuits controlling distinct elements of male behavior could differ in their dependence on these receptors. Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Spindle burst like spike discharge oscillations in organotypic cultures of neonatal rat cortex

Early network oscillations and spindle bursts are typical patterns of spontaneous rhythmic activity in cortical networks of neonatal rodents in vivo and in vitro. The latter can also be triggered in vivo by stimulation of afferent inputs. The mechanisms underlying such oscillations undergo profound developmental changes in the first postnatal weeks. Their possible role in cortical development is postulated but not known in detail. We have studied spontaneous and evoked patterns of activity in organotypic cultures of slices from neonatal rat cortex grown on multielectrode arrays (MEAs) for extracellular single- and multi-unit recording. Episodes of spontaneous spike discharge oscillations at 7 - 25 Hz lasting for 0.6 - 3 seconds appeared in about half of these cultures spontaneously and could be triggered by electrical stimulation of few distinct electrodes. These oscillations usually covered only restricted areas of the slices. Besides oscillations, single population bursts that spread in a wavelike manner over the whole slice also appeared spontaneously and were triggered by electrical stimulation. In most but not all cultures, population bursts preceded the oscillations. Both population bursts and spike discharge oscillations required intact glutamatergic synaptic transmission since they were suppressed by the AMPA/kainate glutamate receptor antagonist CNQX. The NMDA antagonist d-APV suppressed the oscillations but not the population bursts, suggesting an involvement of NMDA receptors in the oscillations. These findings show that spindle burst like cortical rhythms are reproduced in organotypic cultures of neonatal cortex. The culture model thus allows investigating the role of such rhythms in cortical circuit formation. Supported by SNF grant No. 3100A0-107641/1.