Business and Management for the IB Diploma: Standard and Higher Level.

Esta guía contiene una revisión de todos los temas de ciencias empresariales para el Programa del Diploma de Bachillerato Internacional (IB Diploma). Los temas del libro son: la organización y el entorno empresarial (naturaleza de la actividad empresarial, tipos de organización, objetivos, herramientas de planificación de la organización, crecimiento y evolución, globalización), recursos humanos (relaciones empleador y empleado, liderazgo y gestión, motivación), las cuentas y finanzas (fuentes de financiación), marketing (el papel del marketing, producto, precio, promoción, lugar de distribución, marketing internacional), las operaciones de gestión.

Dise??o y evaluaci??n de una propuesta curricular de aprendizaje de la Geometr??a en Ense??anza Media basada en el modelo de razonamiento de Van Hiele

Dise??ar tres unidades de geometr??a plana (generalidades de pol??gonos, tri??ngulos y cuadril??teros) para el primer curso de Ense??anza Media (14-15 a??os), que permitan a los estudiantes progresar desde su nivel actual (generalmente el nivel 2) hasta el nivel 3. 128 estudiantes, todos ellos de primer curso de Formaci??n del Profesorado y de BUP. Distribuidos en 8 grupos: uno de Electricidad, otro de Electr??nica, dos de Administrativo, tres de Automoci??n y uno de Bachillerato. El origen de la investigaci??n se encuentra en las dificultades que tienen los profesores de Matem??ticas de Ense??anza Secundaria para conseguir que sus alumnos comprendan los temas que estudian, m??s all?? de la simple memorizaci??n de contenidos. El modelo de Van Hiele fue desarrollado para dar respuesta a este problema. Tal modelo se articula en torno a dos ejes fundamentales: la descripci??n de cuatro niveles de razonamiento en Matem??ticas y la propuesta de cinco fases de aprendizaje. La investigaci??n pasa por tres etapas: Planificaci??n: la primera mitad del curso 1989-90 se dedic?? a organizar y completar la informaci??n disponible, a planificar la secuencia de trabajo del equipo y a desarrollar el material que deb??a ser utilizado en la experimentaci??n. Este material consta de las unidades de la ense??anza y de dos tests. Experimentaci??n: se ha llevado a cabo en 6 grupos de primer curso de Formaci??n Profesional y en primero de BUP experimental, como parte integral de los respectivos cursos de Matem??ticas, durante su horario habitual de clase y dando las clases sus profesores oficiales, que eran miembros del equipo investigador. An??lisis de resultados: se ha analizado el desarrollo de las clases en los grupos experimentales, se ha completado la correcci??n de los tests y se han obtenido conclusiones de los mismos. En cuanto a la metodolog??a concreta de trabajo, debemos referirnos a la metodolog??a de ense??anza y a la de evaluaci??n. La elecci??n del modelo de Van Hiele como marco te??rico hace que las unidades de ense??anza dise??adas sean de tipo heur??stico, basadas en la actividad de los estudiantes y organizadas de acuerdo con las fases de aprendizaje. Pretest, posttest, test, ??tems escritos de respuesta libre, test-1, test-2. Coeficiente de escalabilidad de Buttman. Los principales resultados son las propias unidades de ense??anza. Las unidades se han elaborado para ayudar a progresar a los estudiantes desde el nivel 2 al nivel 3 de Van Hiele. Durante la experimentaci??n se observ?? que la mayor??a de los estudiantes iniciaron el curso con una adquisici??n alta o completa del nivel 1 y una adquisici??n nula o baja del nivel 2. Al final del curso se ha constatado un incremento significativo del nivel de razonamiento de los estudiantes, pues la mayor??a han logrado completar la adquisici??n del nivel 2 y s??lo unos pocos han mostrado alg??n progreso en el nivel 3.

Por Alcalá de Henares.

Este trabajo propone la realización de un paseo literario por la ciudad de Alcalá de Henares. Dirigido principalmente a profesores, pretende facilitarles la información necesaria para la comprensión de los textos literarios seleccionados. La primera parte del libro es una breve historia de Alcalá de Henares, un recorrido desde la Prehistoria hasta el siglo XX; la segunda parte analiza el tratamiento literario de la ciudad y en qué momentos y géneros aparece; por último, la tercera parte es un recorrido literario por Alcalá de Henares con paradas en los monumentos y espacios más representativos. Incluye un anexo documental con textos precedidos de orientaciones didácticas para que, antes o después del paseo, el profesor trabaje con los alumnos.

El norte de Madrid : Talamanca del Jarama, Torrelaguna, Buitrago de Lozoya y Cartuja del El Paular (Rascafría).

Presenta un recorrido por algunos lugares y monumentos de la zona norte de la Comunidad de Madrid, cuya historia abarca diversos periodos históricos y artísticos, desde la Edad Media al S. XVIII. El itinerario comprende los pueblos de Talamanca del Jarama, Torrelaguna, Buitrago de Lozoya y Rascafría, con las dependencias más destacas de la Cartuja de El Paular. El contenido de la obra se desarrolla siguiendo un orden lógico del itinerario e incluye, además del análisis de los lugares, numerosos epígrafes que profundizan en dicho análisis. Finaliza con un glosario y una serie de orientaciones didácticas.

Biofilm formation as a novel phenotypic feature of adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC)

Crohn's disease (CD) is a high morbidity chronic inflammatory disorder of unknown aetiology. Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) has been recently implicated in the origin and perpetuation of CD. Because bacterial biofilms in the gut mucosa are suspected to play a role in CD and biofilm formation is a feature of certain pathogenic E. coli strains, we compared the biofilmformation capacity of 27 AIEC and 38 non-AIEC strains isolated from the intestinal mucosa. Biofilmformation capacity was then contrasted with the AIEC phenotype, the serotype, the phylotype, andthe presence of virulence genes. Results: Specific biofilm formation (SBF) indices were higher amongst AIEC than non-AIEC strains(P = 0.012). In addition, 65.4% of moderate to strong biofilms producers were AIEC, whereas74.4% of weak biofilm producers were non-AIEC (P = 0.002). These data indicate that AIEC strainswere more efficient biofilm producers than non-AIEC strains. Moreover, adhesion (P = 0.009) andinvasion (P = 0.003) indices correlated positively with higher SBF indices. Additionally, motility(100%, P < 0.001), H1 type flagellin (53.8%, P < 0.001), serogroups O83 (19.2%, P = 0.008) and O22(26.9%, P = 0.001), the presence of virulence genes such as sfa/focDE (38.5%, P = 0.003) and ibeA(26.9%, P = 0.017), and B2 phylotype (80.8%, P < 0.001) were frequent characteristics amongstbiofilm producers.Conclusion: The principal contribution of the present work is the finding that biofilm formationcapacity is a novel, complementary pathogenic feature of the recently described AIEC pathovar. Characterization of AIEC specific genetic determinants, and the regulatory pathways, involved in biofilm formation will likely bring new insights into AIEC pathogenesis

Rethinking Polycentric Structures in the Postcolonial Church: Dangers of “Drone Missiology” or Afghanization of Christianity

In this brief essay I shall obviously draw from my reflections which I shared over the past three decades and to which I have provided some bibliographical references. It is clear from them that I had several opportunities to share my views beyond the Anglo-Saxon world, and some of them in events organized by K. Koschorke himself in the German academic circles as Munich-Freising Conferences. It is important that we do not get misled by words. We also need clarity of the concepts involved. Koschorke’s emphasis on “ploycentric structures” requires to be discussed and analysed critically to sort out its geographic components and its political-cultural implications, in order to be clear where lie the priorities. Without such exercise we will run the risk of hiding behind the ambiguity of words and concepts. My gut feelings make me believe that “polycentric structures” is just what the West needs in the postcolonial era to replace the control it has lost with decolonization.

The nutritional and clinical significance of lipid rafts

Purpose of review Lipid rafts are potentially modifiable by diet, particularly (but not exclusively) by dietary fatty acids. This review examines the potential for dietary modification of raft structure and function in the immune system, brain and retinal tissue, the gut, and in cancer cells. Recent findings In-vitro and ex-vivo studies suggest that dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may exert immunosuppressive and anticancer effects through changes in lipid raft organization. In addition, gangliosides and cholesterol may modulate lipid raft organization in a number of tissues, and recent work has highlighted sphingolipids in membrane microdomains as potential targets for inhibition of tumor growth. The roles of fatty acids and gangliosides, especially in relation to lipid rafts, in cognitive development, age-related cognitive decline, psychiatric disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease are poorly understood and require further investigation. The roles of lipid rafts in cancer, in microbial pathogenesis, and in insulin resistance are starting to emerge, and indicate compelling evidence for the growing importance of membrane microdomains in health and disease. Summary In-vitro and animal studies show that n-3 PUFAs, cholesterol, and gangliosides modulate the structure and composition of lipid rafts, potentially influencing a wide range of biological processes, including immune function, neuronal signaling, cancer cell growth, entry of pathogens through the gut barrier, and insulin resistance in metabolic disorders. The physiological, clinical, and nutritional relevance of these observations remains to be determined.

Prebiotic effects: metabolic and health benefits

The different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract are inhabited by populations of micro-organisms. By far the most important predominant populations are in the colon where a true symbiosis with the host exists that is a key for well-being and health. For such a microbiota, 'normobiosis' characterises a composition of the gut 'ecosystem' in which micro-organisms with potential health benefits predominate in number over potentially harmful ones, in contrast to 'dysbiosis', in which one or a few potentially harmful micro-organisms are dominant, thus creating a disease-prone situation. The present document has been written by a group of both academic and industry experts (in the ILSI Europe Prebiotic Expert Group and Prebiotic Task Force, respectively). It does not aim to propose a new definition of a prebiotic nor to identify which food products are classified as prebiotic but rather to validate and expand the original idea of the prebiotic concept (that can be translated in 'prebiotic effects'), defined as: 'The selective stimulation of growth and/or activity(ies) of one or a limited number of microbial genus(era)/species in the gut microbiota that confer(s) health benefits to the host.' Thanks to the methodological and fundamental research of microbiologists, immense progress has very recently been made in our understanding of the gut microbiota. A large number of human intervention studies have been performed that have demonstrated that dietary consumption of certain food products can result in statistically significant changes in the composition of the gut microbiota in line with the prebiotic concept. Thus the prebiotic effect is now a well-established scientific fact. The more data are accumulating, the more it will be recognised that such changes in the microbiota's composition, especially increase in bifidobacteria, can be regarded as a marker of intestinal health. The review is divided in chapters that cover the major areas of nutrition research where a prebiotic effect has tentatively been investigated for potential health benefits. The prebiotic effect has been shown to associate with modulation of biomarkers and activity(ies) of the immune system. Confirming the studies in adults, it has been demonstrated that, in infant nutrition, the prebiotic effect includes a significant change of gut microbiota composition, especially an increase of faecal concentrations of bifidobacteria. This concomitantly improves stool quality (pH, SCFA, frequency and consistency), reduces the risk of gastroenteritis and infections, improves general well-being and reduces the incidence of allergic symptoms such as atopic eczema. Changes in the gut microbiota composition are classically considered as one of the many factors involved in the pathogenesis of either inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. The use of particular food products with a prebiotic effect has thus been tested in clinical trials with the objective to improve the clinical activity and well-being of patients with such disorders. Promising beneficial effects have been demonstrated in some preliminary studies, including changes in gut microbiota composition (especially increase in bifidobacteria concentration). Often associated with toxic load and/or miscellaneous risk factors, colon cancer is another pathology for which a possible role of gut microbiota composition has been hypothesised. Numerous experimental studies have reported reduction in incidence of tumours and cancers after feeding specific food products with a prebiotic effect. Some of these studies (including one human trial) have also reported that, in such conditions, gut microbiota composition was modified (especially due to increased concentration of bifidobacteria). Dietary intake of particular food products with a prebiotic effect has been shown, especially in adolescents, but also tentatively in postmenopausal women, to increase Ca absorption as well as bone Ca accretion and bone mineral density. Recent data, both from experimental models and from human studies, support the beneficial effects of particular food products with prebiotic properties on energy homaeostasis, satiety regulation and body weight gain. Together, with data in obese animals and patients, these studies support the hypothesis that gut microbiota composition (especially the number of bifidobacteria) may contribute to modulate metabolic processes associated with syndrome X, especially obesity and diabetes type 2. It is plausible, even though not exclusive, that these effects are linked to the microbiota-induced changes and it is feasible to conclude that their mechanisms fit into the prebiotic effect. However, the role of such changes in these health benefits remains to be definitively proven. As a result of the research activity that followed the publication of the prebiotic concept 15 years ago, it has become clear that products that cause a selective modification in the gut microbiota's composition and/or activity(ies) and thus strengthens normobiosis could either induce beneficial physiological effects in the colon and also in extra-intestinal compartments or contribute towards reducing the risk of dysbiosis and associated intestinal and systemic pathologies.

Net nutrient absorption and liver metabolism in lactating dairy cows fed supplemental dietary biotin

The effect of feeding supplemental biotin on net absorption and metabolism of nutrients by the portal-drained viscera (PDV; the gut, pancreas, spleen and associated fat) and liver of lactating dairy cows was measured. Three cows in early to mid-lactation catheterised for measurements of net nutrient absorption and metabolism by the PDV and liver were fed a total-mixed ration with or without supplemental biotin at 20 mg/day using a switch-back design (ABA v. BAB) with three 2-week periods. There were no effects of feeding biotin on dry matter intake (22.2 kg/day), milk yield (29.5 kg/day) or milk composition. There was also no effect of feeding biotin on net release of glucose by the liver, net liver removal of glucose precursors (propionate, alanine, lactate) or net liver release of p-hydroxybutyrate. Feeding biotin increased net PDV release of ammonia. Reasons for the response are not certain, but a numerical increase in net PDV release of acetate suggests that rumen or hindgut fermentation was altered. Results of the present study do not support the hypothesis that supplemental biotin increases liver glucose production in lactating dairy cows.

Effects of phosphorus intake on phosphorus flow in growing pigs: Application and comparison of two models

A comparison of the models of Vitti et al. (2000, J. Anim. Sci. 78, 2706-2712) and Fernandez (1995c, Livest. Prod. Sci. 41, 255-261) was carried out using two data sets on growing pigs as input. The two models compared were based on similar basic principles, although their aims and calculations differed. The Vitti model employs the rate:state formalism and describes phosphorus (P) flow between four pools representing P content in gut, blood, bone and soft tissue in growing goats. The Fernandez model describes flow and fractional recirculation between P pools in gut, blood and bone in growing pigs. The results from both models showed similar trends for P absorption from gut to blood and net retention in bone with increasing P intake, with the exception of the 65 kg results from Date Set 2 calculated using the FernAndez model. Endogenous loss from blood back to gut increased faster with increasing P intake in the FernAndez than in the Vitti model for Data Set 1. However, for Data Set 2, endogenous loss increased with increasing P intake using the Vitti model, but decreased when calculated using the FernAndez model. Incorporation of P into bone was not influenced by intake in the FernAndez model, while in the Vitti model there was an increasing trend. The FernAndez model produced a pattern of decreasing resorption in bone with increasing P intake, with one of the data sets, which was not observed when using the Vitti model. The pigs maintained their P homeostasis in blood by regulation of P excretion in urine. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The effect of selective decontamination of the digestive tract on mortality in multiple trauma patients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial

Objective: Evaluation of selective decontamination of the digestive tract (SDD) on late mortality in ventilated trauma patients in an intensive care unit (ICU). Methods: A multicenter, randomized controlled trial was undertaken in 401 trauma patients with Hospital Trauma Index-Injury Severity Score of 16 or higher. Patients were randomized to control (n = 200) or SDD (n = 201), using polymyxin E, tobramycin, and amphotericin B in throat and gut throughout ICU treatment combined with cefotaxime for 4 days. Primary endpoint was late mortality excluding early death from hemorrhage or craniocerebral injury. Secondary endpoints were infection and organ dysfunction. Results: Mortality was 20.9% with SDD and 22.0% in controls. Overall late mortality was 15.3% (57/372) as 29 patients died from cerebral injury, 16 SDD and 13 control. The odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) of late mortality for SDD relative to control was 0.75 (0.40-1.37), corresponding to estimates of 13.4% SDD and 17.2% control. The overall infection rate was reduced in the test group (48.8% vs. 61.0%). SDD reduced lower airway infections (30.9% vs. 50.0%) and bloodstream infections due to aerobic Gram-negative bacilli (2.5% vs. 7.5%). No difference in organ dysfunction was found. Concluson: This study demonstrates that SDD significantly reduces infection in multiple trauma, although this RCT in 401 patients was underpowered to detect a mortality benefit.

Dietary glycated protein modulates the colonic microbiota towards a more detrimental composition in ulcerative colitis patients and non-ulcerative colitis subjects

AIM: To investigate the effect of native, heated and glycated bovine serum albumin (BSA) on the ulcerative colitis (UC) and non-UC colonic microbiota in vitro. METHODS AND RESULTS: Continuous flow culture (CFC) models of the human colonic microbiota inoculated with faeces from UC and non-UC volunteers were maintained on BSA as growth substrate. Changes in bacterial populations and short-chain fatty acids were determined. UC and non-UC microbiota differed significantly in microbial populations, with elevated numbers of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and clostridia in the microbiota from UC patients. Compared with native BSA, glycated BSA modulated the gut microbiota of UC patients in vitro towards a more detrimental community structure with significant increases in putatively harmful bacteria (clostridia, bacteroides and SRB; P < 0.009) and decreases in dominant and putatively beneficial bacterial groups (eubacteria and bifidobacteria; P < 0.0004). The levels of beneficial short-chain fatty acids were significantly decreased by heated or glycated BSA, but were increased significantly by native BSA. CONCLUSION: The UC colonic microbiota maintained in CFC was significantly modified by glycated BSA. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Results suggest that dietary glycated protein may impact upon the composition and activity of the colonic microbiota, an important environmental variable in UC.

Comparison of the euryarchaeal microbial community in guts and food-soil of the soil-feeding termite Cubitermes fungifaber across different soil types

Termites are an important component of tropical soil communities and have a significant affect on the structure and nutrient content of soil. Digestion in termites is related to gut structure, gut physico-chemical conditions and gut symbiotic microbiota. Here we describe the use of 16S rRNA gene sequencing and Terminal-restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis to examine methanogenic Archaea (MA) in the guts and food-soil of the soil-feeder Cubitermes fungifaber Sjostedt across a range of soil types. If they are strictly vertically inherited, then MA in guts should be the same in all individuals even if the soils differ across sites. In contrast, gut MA should reflect what is present in soil if populations are merely a reflection of what is ingested as the insects forage. We show clear differences between the euryarchaeal communities in termite guts and in food-soils from five different sites. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene clones indicated little overlap between the gut and soil communities. Gut clones were related to a termite-derived Methanomicrobiales cluster, to Methanobrevibacter and, surprisingly, to the haloalkaliphile Natronococcus. Soil clones clustered with Methanosarcina, Methanomicrococcus or Rice Cluster I. T-RFLP analysis indicated that the archaeal communities in the soil samples differed from site to site, whereas those in termite guts were similar between sites. There was some overlap between the gut and soil communities but these may represent transient populations in either guts or soil. Our data does not support the hypothesis that termite gut MA are derived from their food soil but also does not support a purely vertical transmission of gut microflora.

Comparison of Euryarchaea strains in the guts and food-soil of the soil-feeding termite Cubitermes fungifaber across different soil types

Termites are an important component of tropical soil communities and have a significant effect on the structure and nutrient content of soil. Digestion in termites is related to gut structure, gut physicochemical conditions, and gut symbiotic microbiota. Here we describe the use of 16S rRNA gene sequencing and terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis to examine methanogenic archaea (MA) in the guts and food-soil of the soil-feeder Cubitermes fungifaber Sjostedt across a range of soil types. If these MA are strictly vertically inherited, then the MA in guts should be the same in all individuals even if the soils differ across sites. In contrast, gut MA should reflect what is present in soil if populations are merely a reflection of what is ingested as the insects forage. We show clear differences between the euryarchaeal communities in termite guts and in food-soils from five different sites. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene clones indicated little overlap between the gut and soil communities. Gut clones were related to a termite-derived Methanomicrobiales cluster, to Methanobrevibacter and, surprisingly, to the haloalkaliphile Natronococcus. Soil clones clustered with Methanosarcina, Methanomicrococcus, or rice cluster I. T-RFLP analysis indicated that the archaeal communities in the soil samples differed from site to site, whereas those in termite guts were similar between sites. There was some overlap between the gut and soil communities, but these may represent transient populations in either guts or soil. Our data do not support the hypothesis that termite gut MA are derived from their food-soil but also do not support a purely vertical transmission of gut microflora.