Numerical investigation of aerosol particle transport and deposition in realistic lung airway

Different human activities like combustion of fossil fuels, biomass burning, industrial and agricultural activities, emit a large amount of particulates into the atmosphere. As a consequence, the air we inhale contains significant amount of suspended particles, including organic and inorganic solids and liquids, as well as various microorganism, which are solely responsible for a number of pulmonary diseases. Developing a numerical model for transport and deposition of foreign particles in realistic lung geometry is very challenging due to the complex geometrical structure of the human lung. In this study, we have numerically investigated the airborne particle transport and its deposition in human lung surface. In order to obtain the appropriate results of particle transport and deposition in human lung, we have generated realistic lung geometry from the CT scan obtained from a local hospital. For a more accurate approach, we have also created a mucus layer inside the geometry, adjacent to the lung surface and added all apposite mucus layer properties to the wall surface. The Lagrangian particle tracking technique is employed by using ANSYS FLUENT solver to simulate the steady-state inspiratory flow. Various injection techniques have been introduced to release the foreign particles through the inlet of the geometry. In order to investigate the effects of particle size on deposition, numerical calculations are carried out for different sizes of particles ranging from 1 micron to 10 micron. The numerical results show that particle deposition pattern is completely dependent on its initial position and in case of realistic geometry; most of the particles are deposited on the rough wall surface of the lung geometry instead of carinal region.

A Submission to the Joint Standing Committee on Treaties on the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 (# ACTA)

“If Hollywood could order intellectual property laws for Christmas, what would they look like? This is pretty close.” David Fewer “While European and American IP maximalists have pushed for TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTAs and bilateral agreements, they are now pushing for TRIPS-Plus-Plus protections in these various forums.” Susan Sell “ACTA is a threat to the future of a free and open Internet.” Alexander Furnas “Implementing the agreement could open a Pandora's box of potential human rights violations.” Amnesty International. “I will not take part in this masquerade.” Kader Arif, Rapporteur for the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 in the European Parliament Executive Summary As an independent scholar and expert in intellectual property, I am of the view that the Australian Parliament should reject the adoption of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. I would take issue with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade’s rather partisan account of the negotiations, the consultations, and the outcomes associated with the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. In my view, the negotiations were secretive and biased; the local consultations were sometimes farcical because of the lack of information about the draft texts of the agreement; and the final text of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 is not in the best interests of Australia, particularly given that it is a net importer of copyright works and trade mark goods and services. I would also express grave reservations about the quality of the rather pitiful National Interest Analysis – and the lack of any regulatory impact statement – associated with the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. The assertion that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 does not require legislative measures is questionable – especially given the United States Trade Representative has called the agreement ‘the highest-standard plurilateral agreement ever achieved concerning the enforcement of intellectual property rights.’ It is worthwhile reiterating that there has been much criticism of the secretive and partisan nature of the negotiations surrounding the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. Sean Flynn summarizes these concerns: "The negotiation process for ACTA has been a case study in establishing the conditions for effective industry capture of a lawmaking process. Instead of using the relatively transparent and inclusive multilateral processes, ACTA was launched through a closed and secretive “‘club approach’ in which like-minded jurisdictions define enforcement ‘membership’ rules and then invite other countries to join, presumably via other trade agreements.” The most influential developing countries, including Brazil, India, China and Russia, were excluded. Likewise, a series of manoeuvres ensured that public knowledge about the specifics of the agreement and opportunities for input into the process were severely limited. Negotiations were held with mere hours notice to the public as to when and where they would be convened, often in countries half away around the world from where public interest groups are housed. Once there, all negotiation processes were closed to the public. Draft texts were not released before or after most negotiating rounds, and meetings with stakeholders took place only behind closed doors and off the record. A public release of draft text, in April 2010, was followed by no public or on-the-record meetings with negotiators." Moreover, it is disturbing that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 has been driven by ideology and faith, rather than by any evidence-based policy making Professor Duncan Matthews has raised significant questions about the quality of empirical evidence used to support the proposal of Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011: ‘There are concerns that statements about levels of counterfeiting and piracy are based either on customs seizures, with the actual quantities of infringing goods in free circulation in any particular market largely unknown, or on estimated losses derived from industry surveys.’ It is particularly disturbing that, in spite of past criticism, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has supported the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011, without engaging the Productivity Commission or the Treasury to do a proper economic analysis of the proposed treaty. Kader Arif, Rapporteur for the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 in the European Parliament, quit his position, and said of the process: "I want to denounce in the strongest possible manner the entire process that led to the signature of this agreement: no inclusion of civil society organisations, a lack of transparency from the start of the negotiations, repeated postponing of the signature of the text without an explanation being ever given, exclusion of the EU Parliament's demands that were expressed on several occasions in our assembly. As rapporteur of this text, I have faced never-before-seen manoeuvres from the right wing of this Parliament to impose a rushed calendar before public opinion could be alerted, thus depriving the Parliament of its right to expression and of the tools at its disposal to convey citizens' legitimate demands.” Everyone knows the ACTA agreement is problematic, whether it is its impact on civil liberties, the way it makes Internet access providers liable, its consequences on generic drugs manufacturing, or how little protection it gives to our geographical indications. This agreement might have major consequences on citizens' lives, and still, everything is being done to prevent the European Parliament from having its say in this matter. That is why today, as I release this report for which I was in charge, I want to send a strong signal and alert the public opinion about this unacceptable situation. I will not take part in this masquerade." There have been parallel concerns about the process and substance of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 in the context of Australia. I have a number of concerns about the substance of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. First, I am concerned that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 fails to provide appropriate safeguards in respect of human rights, consumer protection, competition, and privacy laws. It is recommended that the new Joint Parliamentary Committee on Human Rights investigate this treaty. Second, I argue that there is a lack of balance to the copyright measures in the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 – the definition of piracy is overbroad; the suite of civil remedies, criminal offences, and border measures is excessive; and there is a lack of suitable protection for copyright exceptions, limitations, and remedies. Third, I discuss trade mark law, intermediary liability, and counterfeiting. I express my concerns, in this context, that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 could have an adverse impact upon consumer interests, competition policy, and innovation in the digital economy. I also note, with concern, the lobbying by tobacco industries for the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 – and the lack of any recognition in the treaty for the capacity of countries to take measures of tobacco control under the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Fourth, I note that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 provides no positive obligations to promote access to essential medicines. It is particularly lamentable that Australia and the United States of America have failed to implement the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health 2001 and the WTO General Council Decision 2003. Fifth, I express concerns about the border measures in the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. Such measures lack balance – and unduly favour the interests of intellectual property owners over consumers, importers, and exporters. Moreover, such measures will be costly, as they involve shifting the burden of intellectual property enforcement to customs and border authorities. Interdicting, seizing, and destroying goods may also raise significant trade issues. Finally, I express concern that the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 undermines the role of existing international organisations, such as the United Nations, the World Intellectual Property Organization and the World Trade Organization, and subverts international initiatives such as the WIPO Development Agenda 2007. I also question the raison d'être, independence, transparency, and accountability of the proposed new ‘ACTA Committee’. In this context, I am concerned by the shift in the position of the Labor Party in its approach to international treaty-making in relation to intellectual property. The Australian Parliament adopted the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement 2004, which included a large Chapter on intellectual property. The treaty was a ‘TRIPs-Plus’ agreement, because the obligations were much more extensive and prescriptive than those required under the multilateral framework established by the TRIPS Agreement 1994. During the debate over the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement 2004, the Labor Party expressed the view that it would seek to mitigate the effects of the TRIPS-Plus Agreement, when at such time it gained power. Far from seeking to ameliorate the effects of the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement 2004, the Labor Government would seek to lock Australia into a TRIPS-Double Plus Agreement – the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. There has not been a clear political explanation for this change in approach to international intellectual property. For both reasons of process and substance, I conclude that the Australian Parliament and the Australian Government should reject the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011. The Australian Government would do better to endorse the Washington Declaration on Intellectual Property and the Public Interest 2011, and implement its outstanding obligations in respect of access to knowledge, access to essential medicines, and the WIPO Development Agenda 2007. The case study of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2011 highlights the need for further reforms to the process by which Australia engages in international treaty-making.

A "Candidate-Interactome" Aggregate Analysis of Genome-Wide Association Data in Multiple Sclerosis

Though difficult, the study of gene-environment interactions in multifactorial diseases is crucial for interpreting the relevance of non-heritable factors and prevents from overlooking genetic associations with small but measurable effects. We propose a "candidate interactome" (i.e. a group of genes whose products are known to physically interact with environmental factors that may be relevant for disease pathogenesis) analysis of genome-wide association data in multiple sclerosis. We looked for statistical enrichment of associations among interactomes that, at the current state of knowledge, may be representative of gene-environment interactions of potential, uncertain or unlikely relevance for multiple sclerosis pathogenesis: Epstein-Barr virus, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, cytomegalovirus, HHV8-Kaposi sarcoma, H1N1-influenza, JC virus, human innate immunity interactome for type I interferon, autoimmune regulator, vitamin D receptor, aryl hydrocarbon receptor and a panel of proteins targeted by 70 innate immune-modulating viral open reading frames from 30 viral species. Interactomes were either obtained from the literature or were manually curated. The P values of all single nucleotide polymorphism mapping to a given interactome were obtained from the last genome-wide association study of the International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium & the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, 2. The interaction between genotype and Epstein Barr virus emerges as relevant for multiple sclerosis etiology. However, in line with recent data on the coexistence of common and unique strategies used by viruses to perturb the human molecular system, also other viruses have a similar potential, though probably less relevant in epidemiological terms. © 2013 Mechelli et al.

Advances in solid-catalytic and non-catalytic technologies for biodiesel production

The insecure supply of fossil fuel coerces the scientific society to keep a vision to boost investments in the renewable energy sector. Among the many renewable fuels currently available around the world, biodiesel offers an immediate impact in our energy. In fact, a huge interest in related research indicates a promising future for the biodiesel technology. Heterogeneous catalyzed production of biodiesel has emerged as a preferred route as it is environmentally benign needs no water washing and product separation is much easier. The number of well-defined catalyst complexes that are able to catalyze transesterification reactions efficiently has been significantly expanded in recent years. The activity of catalysts, specifically in application to solid acid/base catalyst in transesterification reaction depends on their structure, strength of basicity/acidity, surface area as well as the stability of catalyst. There are various process intensification technologies based on the use of alternate energy sources such as ultrasound and microwave. The latest advances in research and development related to biodiesel production is represented by non-catalytic supercritical method and focussed exclusively on these processes as forthcoming transesterification processes. The latest developments in this field featuring highly active catalyst complexes are outlined in this review. The knowledge of more extensive research on advances in biofuels will allow a deeper insight into the mechanism of these technologies toward meeting the critical energy challenges in future.

On the effect of Reynolds number for flow past three side-by-side square cylinders for unequal gap spacings

Flow patterns and aerodynamic characteristics behind three side-by-side square cylinders has been found depending upon the unequal gap spacing (g1 = s1/d and g2 = s2/d) between the three cylinders and the Reynolds number (Re) using the Lattice Boltzmann method. The effect of Reynolds numbers on the flow behind three cylinders are numerically studied for 75 ≤ Re ≤ 175 and chosen unequal gap spacings such as (g1, g2) = (1.5, 1), (3, 4) and (7, 6). We also investigate the effect of g2 while keeping g1 fixed for Re = 150. It is found that a Reynolds number have a strong effect on the flow at small unequal gap spacing (g1, g2) = (1.5, 1.0). It is also found that the secondary cylinder interaction frequency significantly contributes for unequal gap spacing for all chosen Reynolds numbers. It is observed that at intermediate unequal gap spacing (g1, g2) = (3, 4) the primary vortex shedding frequency plays a major role and the effect of secondary cylinder interaction frequencies almost disappear. Some vortices merge near the exit and as a result small modulation found in drag and lift coefficients. This means that with the increase in the Reynolds numbers and unequal gap spacing shows weakens wakes interaction between the cylinders. At large unequal gap spacing (g1, g2) = (7, 6) the flow is fully periodic and no small modulation found in drag and lift coefficients signals. It is found that the jet flows for unequal gap spacing strongly influenced the wake interaction by varying the Reynolds number. These unequal gap spacing separate wake patterns for different Reynolds numbers: flip-flopping, in-phase and anti-phase modulation synchronized, in-phase and anti-phase synchronized. It is also observed that in case of equal gap spacing between the cylinders the effect of gap spacing is stronger than the Reynolds number. On the other hand, in case of unequal gap spacing between the cylinders the wake patterns strongly depends on both unequal gap spacing and Reynolds number. The vorticity contour visualization, time history analysis of drag and lift coefficients, power spectrum analysis of lift coefficient and force statistics are systematically discussed for all chosen unequal gap spacings and Reynolds numbers to fully understand this valuable and practical problem.

Performance assessment in a heat exchanger tube fitted with double counter twisted tape inserts

The present study explored the effects of the double counter twisted tapes on heat transfer and fluid friction characteristics in a heat exchanger tube. The double counter twisted tapes were used as counter-swirl flow generators in the test section. The experiments were performed with double counter twisted tapes of four different twist ratios (y = 1.95, 3.85, 5.92 and 7.75) using air as the testing fluid in a circular tube turbulent flow regime where the Reynolds number was varied from 6950 to 50,050. The experimental results demonstrated that the Nusselt number, friction factor and thermal enhancement efficiency were increased with decreasing twist ratio. The results also revealed that the heat transfer rate in the tube fitted with double counter twisted tape was significantly increased with corresponding increase in pressure drop. In the range of the present work, heat transfer rate and friction factor were obtained to be around 60 to 240% and 91 to 286% higher than those of the plain tube values, respectively. The maximum thermal enhancement efficiency of 1.34 was achieved by the use of double counter twisted tapes at constant blower power. In addition, the empirical correlations for the Nusselt number, friction factor and thermal enhancement efficiency were also developed, based on the experimental data.

Socio-cultural influences on vehicle defects in the Omani heavy vehicle industry

With recent economic growth in Oman there is increased use of heavy vehicles, presenting an increase in heavy vehicle crashes, associated fatalities and injuries. Vehicle defects cause a significant number of heavy vehicle crashes in Oman and increase the likelihood of fatalities. The aim of this study is to explore factors contributing to driving with vehicle defects in the Omani heavy vehicle industry. A series of qualitative participants observations were conducted in Oman with 49 drivers. These observations also involved discussion and interviews with drivers. The observations occurred at two road-side locations where heavy vehicle drivers gather for eating, resting, vehicle check-up, etc. Data collection was conducted over a three week period. The data was analysed using thematic analysis. A broad number of factors were identified as contributing to the driving of vehicles with defects. Participants indicated that tyres and vehicle mechanical faults were a common issue in the heavy vehicle industry. Participants regularly reported that their companies use cheap, poor quality standards parts and conducted minimal maintenance. Drivers also indicated that they felt powerless to resist company pressure to drive vehicles with known faults. In addition, drivers reported that traffic police were generally in effective and lacked skill to appropriately conduct roadside inspection on trucks. Further, participants stated that it was possible for companies to avoid being fined during annual or roadside vehicle inspections if members of the company knew the traffic police officer conducting the inspection. Moreover, fines issued by police are generally directed to the individual driver rather than being applied to the company, thus providing no incentive for companies to address vehicle faults. The implications of the findings are discussed.

Genetic risk and a primary role for cell-mediated immune mechanisms in multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis is a common disease of the central nervous system in which the interplay between inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes typically results in intermittent neurological disturbance followed by progressive accumulation of disability. Epidemiological studies have shown that genetic factors are primarily responsible for the substantially increased frequency of the disease seen in the relatives of affected individuals, and systematic attempts to identify linkage in multiplex families have confirmed that variation within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) exerts the greatest individual effect on risk. Modestly powered genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have enabled more than 20 additional risk loci to be identified and have shown that multiple variants exerting modest individual effects have a key role in disease susceptibility. Most of the genetic architecture underlying susceptibility to the disease remains to be defined and is anticipated to require the analysis of sample sizes that are beyond the numbers currently available to individual research groups. In a collaborative GWAS involving 9,772 cases of European descent collected by 23 research groups working in 15 different countries, we have replicated almost all of the previously suggested associations and identified at least a further 29 novel susceptibility loci. Within the MHC we have refined the identity of the HLA-DRB1 risk alleles and confirmed that variation in the HLA-A gene underlies the independent protective effect attributable to the class I region. Immunologically relevant genes are significantly overrepresented among those mapping close to the identified loci and particularly implicate T-helper-cell differentiation in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. © 2011 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.

Thermodynamics of ligand (substrate end product) binding to endoxylanase from Chainia sp. (NCL-82-5-1): isothermal calorimetry and fluorescence titration studies

The binding of xylo-oligosaccharides to Chainia endoxylanase resulted in a decrease in fluorescence intensity of the enzyme with the formation of 1:1 complex. Equilibrium and thermodynamic parameters of ligand binding were determined by fluorescence titrations and titration calorimetry. The affinity of xylanase for the oligosaccharides increases in the order X-2 < X-3 < X-4 less than or equal to X-5. Contributions from the enthalpy towards the free energy change decreased with increasing chain length from X-2 to X-4, whereas an increase in entropy was observed, the change in enthalpy and entropy of binding being compensatory. The entropically driven binding process suggested that hydrophobic interactions as well as hydrogen bonds play a predominant role in ligand binding.

Accountability 30 years on: Insurance Contracts Act Reform

The Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) since inception has effected major reform to the law in this field. One of Australia’s most frequently cited pieces of legislation, it has had a major impact upon the law and practice of insurance. Given the importance of insurance to domestic and commercial activity and its pivotal position as a mechanism to manage exposure to risk, it is not surprising that this legislation has been the subject of extensive analysis in the courts and in legal literature. Furthermore the Act has, arising out of a 2009 review, been significantly amended by the Insurance Contracts Amendment Act 2013 (Cth). The principal amendments introduced are: two-fold: the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) has been amended so that a failure to comply with the duty of good faith is now a breach of the Act; and disclosure and misrepresentation provisions under the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) are amended and clarified.

Wife beating: A measure to deal with marital disharmony or a license for misconduct

Wife beating is not a new phenomena rather it has been practiced from pre historic time till date. This was due to the fact that in all the civilizations and under all religions, woman was considered subjugated to men. Her natural physical weakness had also made her vulnerable for violence. Islam reinforced womanhood by protecting her rights and providing her respect in the family and society at large. However, it is not interpreted accurately in male dominant society due to the existence of a patriarchal social setup. Adding to the ignorance regarding the position of women in Islam, the presence of injustice and mal practices in contemporary Muslim societies has been taken up as a weak point of Islam by non Muslims as well by less informed Muslims. The reasons for denying women’s rights in Pakistani society could be summed up as lack of education, ignorance about Islamic teachings, feudal and tribal cultural traditions, male dominated patriarchal attitudes, poverty, unemployment and misinterpretations regarding precise teachings of Quran and Sunnah. There are many misconceptions regarding the stance of Islam on wife beating as well. It is commonly understood that Islam gives permission for wife beating in the Quranic verse 4:34. This article will describe the relationship between husband and wife in the light of Quranic verse4:34 and will explore the sanctions of wife beating and its dimensions. Furthermore, it will aim to remove misunderstandings and prejudged opinions related to the concerned issue, in the light of Quran and Sunnah.

Shariah perspective on marriage contract and practice in contemporary Muslim societies

Forced marriages are worldwide phenomena and also exist in Pakistani society. It involves the lack of free and full consent of at least one of the parties to a marriage. Mostly, females are victims of forced marriages. It is prevalent in the name of religion in many Muslim countries; however, it is purely a traditional and cultural phenomenon which has nothing to do with religion. Forced marriages are different from arranged marriages in which both parties freely consent to enter into marriage contract and they have no objection on the choice of partner selected by their parents. This study will highlights different forms of forced marriages in Pakistani society.

But if you desire God and His Messenger : The concept of choice in Sahih al-Bukhari

The aim of this dissertation is to discuss the concept of choice in the most important collection of Islamic traditions, Sahih al-Bukhari. The author of the collection, Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari, lived between 810-870. My starting point is the collection of texts as it is now in its normative, established form. I read the hadiths as pieces of reality, not as statements about reality. The historicity of the texts has no role at all in my analysis. Part I sketches out the hagiography of the life and work of the author and provides a short history of the development of hadith literature and the processes of collecting and classifying the texts are discussed briefly. Part one ends with the presentation of my way of using rhetorical analysis as a methodological tool. Part II introduces my analysis of the concept of choice. It is divided into ten chapters, each concentrating on one hadith cluster. Part II ends with a discussion of the philosophy of free will and predestination in early Islam. Hadith literature is often considered as a representative of predestinarian theology compared to the Qur'an which emphasises the reponsibility of people of their own acts. In my conclusions I suggest that accoding to the texts in Sahih al-Bukhari, people do deal with real choices in their lives. The collection includes both strictly predestinarian texts but it also compises texts which claim that people are demanded to make real choices, even choices concerning life and death.

Kansankirkon varjossa : Uskonnollisen tasa-arvon toteutuminen Suomessa – vähemmistöjen näkökulma

Työ pyrkii selvittämään miten Suomessa toimivien vähemmistöuskontojen (islam, juutalaisuus, katolisuus) muodostamat yhdyskunnat kokevat oman asemansa suhteessa valtioon, viranomaisiin ja evankelis-luterilaiseen kirkkoon. Toteutuuko vähemmistöjen omasta mielestä Suomessa uskonnollinen tasavertaisuus ja uskonnonvapaus käytännön tasolla. Sopiiko luterilaisen kirkon ja valtion läheinen suhde monikulttuurisen yhteiskunnan ideaan ja vaikuttaako tämä kyseinen suhde siihen, miten muita uskontoja kohdellaan Suomessa. Näiden lisäksi tarkastellaan suomalaisen yhteiskunnan yleistä suvaitsevaisuutta, median vähemmistöjä koskevaa uutisointia ja kuinka valtaväestöstä poikkeaviin uskonnon edustajiin suhtaudutaan arkipäivän kohtaamisissa. Työssä tuodaan myös esille miten perinteiset vähemmistöt (juutalaiset ja tataarit) ovat pystyneet sopeutumaan suomalaiseen yhteiskuntaan ja samanaikaisesti säilyttämään oman kulttuurisen identiteettinsä ja erikoislaatuisuutensa ilman valtion viranomaisten järjestämää kotouttamista. Aineisto työhön on kerätty viiden rekisteröidyn uskonnollisen yhdyskunnan jäsenelle tehdyllä teemahaastattelulla. Perinteiset mukana olevat vähemmistöyhdyskunnat ovat Helsingin juutalainen seurakunta, tataarien Suomen Islam-seurakunta ja Katolinen kirkko Suomessa. Uudempia yhteisöjä edustavat sunnimuslimien Islamic Multicultural Dawah Centre ja shiiojen Resalat Islamilainen yhdyskunta.

Deus vult: Images of crusader violence c. 1095-1100.

This study sets out to provide new information about the interaction between abstract religious ideas and actual acts of violence in the early crusading movement. The sources are asked, whether such a concept as religious violence can be sorted out as an independent or distinguishable source of aggression at the moment of actual bloodshed. The analysis concentrates on the practitioners of sacred violence, crusaders and their mental processing of the use of violence, the concept of the violent act, and the set of values and attitudes defining this concept. The scope of the study, the early crusade movement, covers the period from late 1080 s to the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 15 July 1099. The research has been carried out by contextual reading of relevant sources. Eyewitness reports will be compared with texts that were produced by ecclesiastics in Europe. Critical reading of the texts reveals both connecting ideas and interesting differences between them. The sources share a positive attitude towards crusading, and have principally been written to propagate the crusade institution and find new recruits. The emphasis of the study is on the interpretation of images: the sources are not asked what really happened in chronological order, but what the crusader understanding of the reality was like. Fictional material can be even more crucial for the understanding of the crusading mentality. Crusader sources from around the turn of the twelfth century accept violent encounters with non-Christians on the grounds of external hostility directed towards the Christian community. The enemies of Christendom can be identified with either non-Christians living outside the Christian society (Muslims), non-Christians living within the Christian society (Jews) or Christian heretics. Western Christians are described as both victims and avengers of the surrounding forces of diabolical evil. Although the ideal of universal Christianity and gradual eradication of the non-Christian is present, the practical means of achieving a united Christendom are not discussed. The objective of crusader violence was thus entirely Christian: the punishment of the wicked and the restoration of Christian morals and the divine order. Meanwhile, the means used to achieve these objectives were not. Given the scarcity of written regulations concerning the use of force in bello, perceptions concerning the practical use of violence were drawn from a multitude of notions comprising an adaptable network of secular and ecclesiastical, pre-Christian and Christian traditions. Though essentially ideological and often religious in character, the early crusader concept of the practise of violence was not exclusively rooted in Christian thought. The main conclusion of the study is that there existed a definable crusader ideology of the use of force by 1100. The crusader image of violence involved several levels of thought. Predominantly, violence indicates a means of achieving higher spiritual rewards; eternal salvation and immortal glory.