Holographic optical tweezers combined with back-focal-plane displacement detection

A major problem with holographic optical tweezers (HOTs) is their incompatibility with laser-based position detection methods, such as back-focal-plane interferometry (BFPI). The alternatives generally used with HOTs, like high-speed video tracking, do not offer the same spatial and temporal bandwidths. This has limited the use of this technique in precise quantitative experiments. In this paper, we present an optical trap design that combines digital holography and back-focal-plane displacement detection. We show that, with a particularly simple setup, it is possible to generate a set of multiple holographic traps and an additional static non-holographic trap with orthogonal polarizations and that they can be, therefore, easily separated for measuring positions and forces with the high positional and temporal resolutions of laser-based detection. We prove that measurements from both polarizations contain less than 1% crosstalk and that traps in our setup are harmonic within the typical range. We further tested the instrument in a DNA stretching experiment and we discuss an interesting property of this configuration: the small drift of the differential signal between traps.

Elastic properties and secondary structure formation of single-stranded DNA at monovalent and divalent salt conditions

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) plays a major role in several biological processes. It is therefore of fundamental interest to understand how the elastic response and the formation of secondary structures are modulated by the interplay between base pairing and electrostatic interactions. Here we measure force-extension curves (FECs) of ssDNA molecules in optical tweezers set up over two orders of magnitude of monovalent and divalent salt conditions, and obtain its elastic parameters by fitting the FECs to semiflexible models of polymers. For both monovalent and divalent salts, we find that the electrostatic contribution to the persistence length is proportional to the Debye screening length, varying as the inverse of the square root of cation concentration. The intrinsic persistence length is equal to 0.7 nm for both types of salts, and the effectivity of divalent cations in screening electrostatic interactions appears to be 100-fold as compared with monovalent salt, in line with what has been recently reported for single-stranded RNA. Finally, we propose an analysis of the FECs using a model that accounts for the effective thickness of the filament at low salt condition and a simple phenomenological description that quantifies the formation of non-specific secondary structure at low forces.

Extensor carpi ulnaris accessory tendinous slips (ECUATS): MRI features at 3.0T and correlation with tendinosis : 49

Purpose: To assess the visibility and the features of ECUATS on 3.0-T MRI studies, and evaluate their correlation with tendinosis. Methods and materials: Our retrospective study was approved by IRB, with waiver of informed consent. Fifty wrist MRI and 48 MR arthrographies from 98 patients (55 males, 43 females, mean age 42.3 years) performed between January and November 2009 on 3.0-T units were reviewed. Images (transverse T1, T2, FS Gd T1 and VIBE) were independently analyzed by two radiologists, and a consensus reached with a third reader in case of disagreement. The visibility of ECUATS was assessed on each available transverse sequence. When present, ECUATS' origins, diameters and insertions were noted. ECU tendinosis was also evaluated. Inter-rater agreement was assessed using Cohen's Kappa coefficient. Results: ECUATS observed prevalence was 23.5% (23/98). ECUATS were more frequently noted on the VIBE sequence, with a good inter-rater agreement (Kappa = 0.72). Origins were noted in 95.7% of cases: 3 were at the level of, and 20 distal to ECU subsheath. Insertions were seen in 43.5%: 2 were on 5th metacarpal bone, 8 on extensor apparatus of 5th finger. ECUATS mean shortest and longest diameters were 0.54 and 0.85 mm respectively. ECU tendinosis was statistically more frequently noted in patients with ECUATS (p <0.05). Conclusion: ECUATS are readily visible on 3.0-T MRI studies, especially on transverse GRE VIBE images. ECU tendinosis is more frequently noted in patients bearing ECUATS.

GLUT8 subcellular localization and absence of translocation to the plasma membrane in PC12 cells and hippocampal neurons.

GLUT8 is a high-affinity glucose transporter present mostly in testes and a subset of brain neurons. At the cellular level, it is found in a poorly defined intracellular compartment in which it is retained by an N-terminal dileucine motif. Here we assessed GLUT8 colocalization with markers for different cellular compartments and searched for signals, which could trigger its cell surface expression. We showed that when expressed in PC12 cells, GLUT8 was located in a perinuclear compartment in which it showed partial colocalization with markers for the endoplasmic reticulum but not with markers for the trans-Golgi network, early endosomes, lysosomes, and synaptic-like vesicles. To evaluate its presence at the plasma membrane, we generated a recombinant adenovirus for the expression of GLUT8 containing an extracellular myc epitope. Cell surface expression was evaluated by immunofluorescence microscopy of transduced PC12 cells or primary hippocampal neurons exposed to different stimuli. Those included substances inducing depolarization, activation of protein kinase A and C, activation or inhibition of tyrosine kinase-linked signaling pathways, glucose deprivation, AMP-activated protein kinase stimulation, and osmotic shock. None of these stimuli-induced GLUT8 cell surface translocation. Furthermore, when GLUT8myc was cotransduced with a dominant-negative form of dynamin or GLUT8myc-expressing PC-12 cells or neurons were incubated with an anti-myc antibody, no evidence for constitutive recycling of the transporter through the cell surface could be obtained. Thus, in cells normally expressing it, GLUT8 was associated with a specific intracellular compartment in which it may play an as-yet-uncharacterized role.

TRPM5-mediated calcium uptake regulates mucin secretion from human colon goblet cells

Mucin 5AC (MUC5AC) is secreted by goblet cells of the respiratory tract and, surprisingly, also expressed de novo in mucus secreting cancer lines. siRNA-mediated knockdown of 7343 human gene products in a human colonic cancer goblet cell line (HT29-18N2) revealed new proteins, including a Ca(2+)-activated channel TRPM5, for MUC5AC secretion. TRPM5 was required for PMA and ATP-induced secretion of MUC5AC from the post-Golgi secretory granules. Stable knockdown of TRPM5 reduced a TRPM5-like current and ATP-mediated Ca(2+) signal. ATP-induced MUC5AC secretion depended strongly on Ca(2+) influx, which was markedly reduced in TRPM5 knockdown cells. The difference in ATP-induced Ca(2+) entry between control and TRPM5 knockdown cells was abrogated in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) and by inhibition of the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX). Accordingly, MUC5AC secretion was reduced by inhibition of NCX. Thus TRPM5 activation by ATP couples TRPM5-mediated Na(+) entry to promote Ca(2+) uptake via an NCX to trigger MUC5AC secretion

Connexins: key mediators of endocrine function.

The appearance of multicellular organisms imposed the development of several mechanisms for cell-to-cell communication, whereby different types of cells coordinate their function. Some of these mechanisms depend on the intercellular diffusion of signal molecules in the extracellular spaces, whereas others require cell-to-cell contact. Among the latter mechanisms, those provided by the proteins of the connexin family are widespread in most tissues. Connexin signaling is achieved via direct exchanges of cytosolic molecules between adjacent cells at gap junctions, for cell-to-cell coupling, and possibly also involves the formation of membrane "hemi-channels," for the extracellular release of cytosolic signals, direct interactions between connexins and other cell proteins, and coordinated influence on the expression of multiple genes. Connexin signaling appears to be an obligatory attribute of all multicellular exocrine and endocrine glands. Specifically, the experimental evidence we review here points to a direct participation of the Cx36 isoform in the function of the insulin-producing β-cells of the endocrine pancreas, and of the Cx40 isoform in the function of the renin-producing juxtaglomerular epithelioid cells of the kidney cortex.

Fluorescence flow cytometer to determine urine particle reference intervals in doping control samples.

Background: Urine is still the matrix of choice to fight against doping, because it can be collected non-invasively during anti-doping tests. Most of the World Anti-Doping Agency's accredited laboratories have more than 20 years experience in analyzing this biological fluid and the majority of the compounds listed in the 2010 Prohibited List - International Standard are eliminated through the urinary apparatus. Storing and transporting urine samples for doping analyses does not include a specific protocol to prevent microbial and thermal degradation. The use of a rapid and reliable screening method could enable determine reference intervals for urine specimens in doping control samples and evaluate notably the prevalence of microbial contamination known to be responsible for the degradation of chemical substances in urine.Methods: The Sysmex(R) UF-500i is a recent urine flow cytometer analyzer capable of quantifying BACT and other urinary particles such as RBC, WBC, EC, DEBRIS, CAST, PATH. CAST, YLC, SRC as well as measuring urine conductivity. To determine urine anti-doping reference intervals, 501 samples received in our laboratory over a period of two months were submitted to an immediate examination. All samples were collected and then transported at room temperature. Analysis of variance was performed to test the effects of factors such as gender, test type [in-competition, out-of-competition] and delivery time.Results: The data obtained showed that most of the urine samples were highly contaminated with bacteria. The other urine particles were also very different according to the factors.Conclusions: The Sysmex(R) UF-500i was capable of providing a snapshot of urine particles present in the samples at the time of the delivery to the laboratory. These particles, BACT in particular, gave a good idea of the possible microbial degradation which had and/or could have occurred in the sample. This information could be used as the first quality control set up in WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) accredited laboratories to determine if steroid profiles, endogenous and prohibited substances have possibly been altered. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Studies toward new anti-cancer strategies based on alpha-mannosidase inhibition.

Changes in the glycosylation pattern of cellular glycoproteins constitute a hallmark in human cancer and influence tumor progression, suggesting that inhibitors of selected glycosidases may control cancer progression. Following the studies on swainsonine, a natural inhibitor of Golgi alpha-mannosidase II, which highlighted the inhibition of cellular mannosidases as a potential innovative approach for the treatment of cancer, several dihydroxylated pyrrolidines and analogues were developed as new potent inhibitors of alpha-mannosidases II able to induce antiproliferative effects in human cancer cells.

The complete genome sequence of the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis.

Bacillus subtilis is the best-characterized member of the Gram-positive bacteria. Its genome of 4,214,810 base pairs comprises 4,100 protein-coding genes. Of these protein-coding genes, 53% are represented once, while a quarter of the genome corresponds to several gene families that have been greatly expanded by gene duplication, the largest family containing 77 putative ATP-binding transport proteins. In addition, a large proportion of the genetic capacity is devoted to the utilization of a variety of carbon sources, including many plant-derived molecules. The identification of five signal peptidase genes, as well as several genes for components of the secretion apparatus, is important given the capacity of Bacillus strains to secrete large amounts of industrially important enzymes. Many of the genes are involved in the synthesis of secondary metabolites, including antibiotics, that are more typically associated with Streptomyces species. The genome contains at least ten prophages or remnants of prophages, indicating that bacteriophage infection has played an important evolutionary role in horizontal gene transfer, in particular in the propagation of bacterial pathogenesis.

Rab3D is critical for secretory granule maturation in PC12 cells.

Neuropeptide- and hormone-containing secretory granules (SGs) are synthesized at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) as immature secretory granules (ISGs) and complete their maturation in the F-actin-rich cell cortex. This maturation process is characterized by acidification-dependent processing of cargo proteins, condensation of the SG matrix and removal of membrane and proteins not destined to mature secretory granules (MSGs). Here we addressed a potential role of Rab3 isoforms in these maturation steps by expressing their nucleotide-binding deficient mutants in PC12 cells. Our data show that the presence of Rab3D(N135I) decreases the restriction of maturing SGs to the F-actin-rich cell cortex, blocks the removal of the endoprotease furin from SGs and impedes the processing of the luminal SG protein secretogranin II. This strongly suggests that Rab3D is implicated in the subcellular localization and maturation of ISGs.

Étude des mécanismes de transfert des fibres en sciences forensiques

RESUME Les fibres textiles sont des produits de masse utilisés dans la fabrication de nombreux objets de notre quotidien. Le transfert de fibres lors d'une action délictueuse est dès lors extrêmement courant. Du fait de leur omniprésence dans notre environnement, il est capital que l'expert forensique évalue la valeur de l'indice fibres. L'interprétation de l'indice fibres passe par la connaissance d'un certain nombre de paramètres, comme la rareté des fibres, la probabilité de leur présence par hasard sur un certain support, ainsi que les mécanismes de transfert et de persistance des fibres. Les lacunes les plus importantes concernent les mécanismes de transfert des fibres. A ce jour, les nombreux auteurs qui se sont penchés sur le transfert de fibres ne sont pas parvenus à créer un modèle permettant de prédire le nombre de fibres que l'on s'attend à retrouver dans des circonstances de contact données, en fonction des différents paramètres caractérisant ce contact et les textiles mis en jeu. Le but principal de cette recherche est de démontrer que la création d'un modèle prédictif du nombre de fibres transférées lors d'un contact donné est possible. Dans le cadre de ce travail, le cas particulier du transfert de fibres d'un tricot en laine ou en acrylique d'un conducteur vers le dossier du siège de son véhicule a été étudié. Plusieurs caractéristiques des textiles mis en jeu lors de ces expériences ont été mesurées. Des outils statistiques (régression linéaire multiple) ont ensuite été utilisés sur ces données afin d'évaluer l'influence des caractéristiques des textiles donneurs sur le nombre de fibres transférées et d'élaborer un modèle permettant de prédire le nombre de fibres qui vont être transférées à l'aide des caractéristiques influençant significativement le transfert. Afin de faciliter la recherche et le comptage des fibres transférées lors des expériences de transfert, un appareil de recherche automatique des fibres (liber finder) a été utilisé dans le cadre de cette recherche. Les tests d'évaluation de l'efficacité de cet appareil pour la recherche de fibres montrent que la recherche automatique est globalement aussi efficace qu'une recherche visuelle pour les fibres fortement colorées. Par contre la recherche automatique perd de son efficacité pour les fibres très pâles ou très foncées. Une des caractéristiques des textiles donneurs à étudier est la longueur des fibres. Afin de pouvoir évaluer ce paramètre, une séquence d'algorithmes de traitement d'image a été implémentée. Cet outil permet la mesure de la longueur d'une fibre à partir de son image numérique à haute résolution (2'540 dpi). Les tests effectués montrent que les mesures ainsi obtenues présentent une erreur de l'ordre du dixième de millimètre, ce qui est largement suffisant pour son utilisation dans le cadre de cette recherche. Les résultats obtenus suite au traitement statistique des résultats des expériences de transfert ont permis d'aboutir à une modélisation du phénomène du transfert. Deux paramètres sont retenus dans le modèle: l'état de la surface du tissu donneur et la longueur des fibres composant le tissu donneur. L'état de la surface du tissu est un paramètre tenant compte de la quantité de fibres qui se sont détachées de la structure du tissu ou qui sont encore faiblement rattachées à celle-ci. En effet, ces fibres sont les premières à se transférer lors d'un contact, et plus la quantité de ces fibres par unité de surface est importante, plus le nombre de fibres transférées sera élevé. La longueur des fibres du tissu donneur est également un paramètre important : plus les fibres sont longues, mieux elles sont retenues dans la structure du tissu et moins elles se transféreront. SUMMARY Fibres are mass products used to produce numerous objects encountered everyday. The transfer of fibres during a criminal action is then very common. Because fibres are omnipresent in our environment, the forensic expert has to evaluate the value of the fibre evidence. To interpret fibre evidence, the expert has to know some parameters as frequency of fibres,' probability of finding extraneous fibres by chance on a given support, and transfer and persistence mechanisms. Fibre transfer is one of the most complex parameter. Many authors studied fibre transfer mechanisms but no model has been created to predict the number of fibres transferred expected in a given type of contact according to parameters as characteristics of the contact and characteristics of textiles. The main purpose of this research is to demonstrate that it is possible to create a model to predict the number of fibres transferred during a contact. In this work, the particular case of the transfer of fibres from a knitted textile in wool or in acrylic of a driver to the back of a carseat has been studied. Several characteristics of the textiles used for the experiments were measured. The data obtained were then treated with statistical tools (multiple linear regression) to evaluate the influence of the donor textile characteristics on the number of úbers transferred, and to create a model to predict this number of fibres transferred by an equation containing the characteristics having a significant influence on the transfer. To make easier the searching and the counting of fibres, an apparatus of automatic search. of fibers (fiber finder) was used. The tests realised to evaluate the efficiency of the fiber finder shows that the results obtained are generally as efficient as for visual search for well-coloured fibres. However, the efficiency of automatic search decreases for pales and dark fibres. One characteristic of the donor textile studied was the length of the fibres. To measure this parameter, a sequence of image processing algorithms was implemented. This tool allows to measure the length of a fibre from it high-resolution (2'540 dpi) numerical image. The tests done shows that the error of the measures obtained are about some tenths of millimetres. This precision is sufficient for this research. The statistical methods applied on the transfer experiment data allow to create a model of the transfer phenomenon. Two parameters are included in the model: the shedding capacity of the donor textile surface and the length of donor textile fibres. The shedding capacity of the donor textile surface is a parameter estimating the quantity of fibres that are not or slightly attached to the structure of the textile. These fibres are easily transferred during a contact, and the more this quantity of fibres is high, the more the number of fibres transferred during the contact is important. The length of fibres is also an important parameter: the more the fibres are long, the more they are attached in the structure of the textile and the less they are transferred during the contact.

Retentiopolymeerin optimointi täyteaineiden yhtäaikaisannostelussa

Kirjallisuusosassa perehdyttiin retentioaineisiin ja täyteaineisiin sekä retentioaineiden ja rainanmuodostusolosuhteiden vaikutukseen retentioon, vedenpoistoon ja paperin ominaisuuksiin. Tarkemmin kirjallisuusosassa keskityttiin täyteaineiden esiflokkaukseen, retentiopolymeerin adsorptioon sekä retentiopolymeerien ja täyteaineiden annostelutapoihin. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkittiin sarjaa retentiopolymeerejä, joiden varaustiheys ja moolimassa muuttuivat. Yksi polymeereistä oli kahdesta polymeeristävalmistettu suoladispersio ja yksi modifioitu kationinen PAM. Näillä polymeereillä käytiin läpi koesarjoja, joissa muutettiin täyteaineen annosteluaikaa retentiopolymeerin annosteluajan pysyessä vakiona. Lähinnä vertailtiin keskenään perinteistä annostelua, jossa täyteaine annosteltiin paljon ennen retentiopolymeeriä,ja yhtäaikaista annostelua, jossa molemmat annosteltiin yhtä aikaa lähellä perälaatikkoa. Kokeet tehtiin MBF-laitteella, jolla pystytään paperikonetta vastaaviin pulsaatiotaajuuksiin ja sillä voidaan valmistaa tasoviirakoneella valmistetunpaperin kaltaisia laboratorioarkkeja. Valmistetuista arkeista tutkittiin retentioita ja paperiteknisiä ominaisuuksia. Laboratoriokokeiden perusteella yhtäaikainen annostelu antoi paremmat täyteaineretentiot verrattaessa perinteiseen annosteluun lähes kaikissa koesarjoissa. Varsinkin lyhytketjuiset polymeerit näyttivättoimivan hyvin yhtäaikaisannostelulla, mikä saattaisi johtua siitä, että lyhyt reagointiaika sulpun kanssa on lyhytketjuisille polymeereille edullinen, sillä silloin polymeeriketjun konformaatio ei ehdi asettua liian alhaiseksi ja ketjun toimintakyky säilyy parempana. Polymeerin varaustiheyden kasvaessa riittävästi laski täyteaineretentio seuraavissa tapauksissa: SC-massa + kaoliini ja SC-massa +GCC kummallakin annostelulla sekä SC-massa + PCC A perinteisellä annostelulla. Hienopaperimassalla samaa trendiä noudatti täyteaine GCC kummallakin annostelulla, kun taas PCC H:ta käytettäessä paranivat täyteaineretentiot molemmilla annosteluilla. Retentiopolymeerin moolimassan kasvaessa riittävästi kääntyi täyteaineretentio laskuun täyteaineilla GCC ja kaoliini, kun käytettiin SC-massaa. Hienopaperimassalla GCC noudatti tätä samaa taipumusta. Sen sijaan SC-massalla PCC A:takäytettäessä täyteaineretentio puolestaan nousi hieman moolimassan kasvaessa. Näin kävi myös hienopaperimassalla, kun täyteaineena käytettiin PCC H:ta. Käytettäessä SC-massaa, perinteisellä annostelulla saatiin parempi tai yhtä hyvä valonsironta kuin yhtäaikaisella annostelulla kaikilla täyteaineilla. Tämä saattaisi johtua siitä, että yhtäaikaisannostelulla on muodostunut suurempia täyteaineflokkeja, mikä on alentanut valoa sirottavia pintoja. Täyteaineista korkeimmat valonsirontakertoimet antoi PCC A ja alhaisimmat kaoliini. PCC A:lla oli kapein partikkelikokojakauma, mikä korottaa paperin valonsirontaa. Hienopaperimassalla valonsirontakerroin ja opasiteetti suurenivat GCC-pitoisuuden kasvaessa kummallakin annostelulla, mikä voisi johtua täyteainepartikkelien antamasta paremmasta sironnasta. Yhtäaikaisella annostelulla saavutettiin huomattavasti paremmat valonsironnan arvot perinteiseen annosteluun verrattuna. PCC H-pitoisuuden kasvaessa suurenivat myös valonsirontakerroin ja opasiteetti kummallakin annostelulla. PCC H antoi korkeammat valonsirontakertoimet kuin GCC. PCC omaa suuremman valonheijastusluvun kuin GCC, minkä vuoksi se antaa paremmat valonsirontakertoimen arvot. PCC H:n partikkelikokojakauma oli myös kapeampi kuin GCC:n, mikä mahdollisti paremman valonsironnan ja opasiteetin saavuttamisen.

Betaiinin tuotannon sivujakeiden mikrosuodattaminen teräskeraamisella kalvolla

Betaiini on ammoniumyhdiste, jota käytetään esimerkiksi eläinten rehussa, kosmetiikassa ja lääkkeissä. Danisco Animal Nutrition Finnfeeds Finland Oy:n Naantalin tehdas on maailman johtava betaiinin tuottaja ja raaka-aineena tehtaalla käytetään melassierotuksesta saatavaa betaiinimelassia. Kiteisen betaiinin puhdistusprosessin yhteydessä syntyybetaiinipitoisia sivujakeita, jotka sisältävät huomattavan määrän betaiinia, minkä takia niiden jatkokäsittely on tärkeää. Betaiinin tuotannon sivujakeet ovat erittäin vaikeasti suodattuvia orgaanisia liuoksia, joiden koostumuksia ei täysin tunneta. Tämän työn tarkoituksena oli puhdistaa betaiinin tuotannon sivujakeita mikrosuodattamalla niitä teräskeraamisella kalvolla. Työn kokeellisessa osassa suoritettiin suodatusparametrien eli pH:n, lämpötilan, TMP:n ja betaiiniliuoksen kuiva-ainepitoisuuden optimointi sekä konsentrointikokeita. Mikrosuodatus suoritettiin Graver Technologiesin Scepter-putkimoduulilla, joka toimi ohivirtausperiaatteella ja jonka huokoskoko oli 0,1 ¿m. Scepter-moduuli koostui ruostumattomasta teräksestä sintratuista putkimoduuleista, joissa erottavana kerroksena toimi TiO2. Esikokeiden perusteella todettiin ettei pH:lla ollut suurta vaikutusta suodatukseen. Permeaattivuo kasvoi selvästi lämpötilan ja TMP:nkasvaessa. Vuo taas huononi ja permeaatin sameus lisääntyi selvästi 35 % korkeammissa kuiva-ainepitoisuuksissa. Konsentrointikokeet suoritettiin betaiiniliuoksen refraktrometrisessa kuiva-ainepitoisuudessa, BetRk, 35 %, 80 °C lämpötilassa ja betaiiniliuoksen omassa pH:ssa (pH 8-9,5). Esikokeiden tulosten perusteella konsentrointikokeet suoritettiin TMP:ssa 0,6; 0,8 ja 1,0 bar. Betaiinin tuotannonsivujakeiden konsentrointikokeissa saannoksi saatiin 95 %. Suodatustuloksista havaittiin, että betaiinin tuotannon sivujakeen erä vaikutti voimakkaasti suodatuksen toimivuuteen. Konsentrointikokeissa suodatukset suoritettiin sekäuusilla mikrosuodatusmoduuleilla että vanhalla moduulilla, joka oli jo kulunut.Kulumisen ei kuitenkaan havaittu huonontavan suodatustehokkuutta. Konsentrointikokeiden perusteella voidaan laitteiston pesuväliksi arvioida noin viikko ja pesu tulisi suorittaa sekä emäksisellä että happamalla pesuaineella.

Vortex-putken ominaisuudetkuivaussovellutuksessa

Työssä tarkastellaan vortex-putken soveltuvuutta kostean ilman kuivatukseen ja vapautuvan latenttilämmön hyödyntämiseen. Soveltuvuutta arvioidaan veden ja ilman massataseita hyväksi käyttäen ja stationaarisen systeemin energiataseen avulla. Työn mittauksia varten rakennettiin koelaitteisto, jonka avulla mitattiin miten lämpötilaerot kuumassa ja kylmässä päässä käyttäytyivät mitattaessa kuivalla ilmalla ja ilmalla, jota oli kostutettu. Mitattavia suureita olivat syöttöpaine- ja lämpötila, lämpötilat kuumassa ja kylmässä päässä, kuuman pään paine ja tilavuusvirta tai virtausnopeus ja kuuman pään suhteellinen kosteus. Mittaustulosten avulla laskettiin lämpötilan muutokset kummassakin päässä ja verrattiin kuivan ja kostean ilman mittauksien tuloksia toisiinsa. Lisäksi laskettiin tiivistyneen veden määrä ja veden ja ilman massavirrat molemmissa päissä. Näin voitiin laskea tiivistymisessä vapautuva energia ja tarkastella mihin se siirtyy. Tulosten perusteella vortex-putki soveltuu hyvin huonosti ilman kuivatukseen. Tiivistyneen veden määrä ja sitä kautta tiivistymisessä vapautunut energia, olivat pieniä. Suurin osa kosteudesta meni kuuman pään virtauksen mukana. Tiivistymisessä vapautunut energia siirtyi kylmään päähän.

The Protein quality control system manages plant defence compound synthesis

Jasmonates are ubiquitous oxylipin-derived phytohormones that are essential in the regulation of many development, growth and defence processes. Across the plant kingdom, jasmonates act as elicitors of the production of bioactive secondarymetabolites that serve in defence against attackers. Knowledge of the conserved jasmonate perception and early signalling machineries is increasing, but the downstream mechanisms that regulate defence metabolism remain largely unknown. Herewe showthat, in the legumeMedicago truncatula, jasmonate recruits the endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD)quality control system tomanagethe production of triterpene saponins, widespread bioactive compounds that share a biogenic origin with sterols. An ERAD-type RING membraneanchor E3 ubiquitin ligase is co-expressed with saponin synthesis enzymes to control the activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR), the rate-limiting enzyme in the supply of the ubiquitous terpene precursor isopentenyl diphosphate. Thus, unrestrained bioactive saponin accumulationis prevented and plant development and integrity secured. This control apparatus is equivalent to the ERAD system that regulates sterol synthesis in yeasts and mammals but that uses distinct E3 ubiquitin ligases, of the HMGR degradation 1 (HRD1) type, to direct destruction of HMGR. Hence, the general principles for the management of sterol and triterpene saponin biosynthesis are conserved across eukaryotes but can be controlled by divergent regulatory cues.