Metrics for linking emissions of gases and aerosols to global precipitation changes

Recent advances in understanding have made it possible to relate global precipitation changes directly to emissions of particular gases and aerosols that influence climate. Using these advances, new indices are developed here called the Global Precipitation-change Potential for pulse (GPP_P) and sustained (GPP_S) emissions, which measure the precipitation change per unit mass of emissions. The GPP can be used as a metric to compare the effects of different emissions. This is akin to the global warming potential (GWP) and the global temperature-change potential (GTP) which are used to place emissions on a common scale. Hence the GPP provides an additional perspective of the relative or absolute effects of emissions. It is however recognised that precipitation changes are predicted to be highly variable in size and sign between different regions and this limits the usefulness of a purely global metric. The GPP_P and GPP_S formulation consists of two terms, one dependent on the surface temperature change and the other dependent on the atmospheric component of the radiative forcing. For some forcing agents, and notably for CO2, these two terms oppose each other – as the forcing and temperature perturbations have different timescales, even the sign of the absolute GPP_P and GPP_S varies with time, and the opposing terms can make values sensitive to uncertainties in input parameters. This makes the choice of CO2 as a reference gas problematic, especially for the GPP_S at time horizons less than about 60 years. In addition, few studies have presented results for the surface/atmosphere partitioning of different forcings, leading to more uncertainty in quantifying the GPP than the GWP or GTP. Values of the GPP_P and GPP_S for five long- and short-lived forcing agents (CO2, CH4, N2O, sulphate and black carbon – BC) are presented, using illustrative values of required parameters. The resulting precipitation changes are given as the change at a specific time horizon (and hence they are end-point metrics) but it is noted that the GPPS can also be interpreted as the time-integrated effect of a pulse emission. Using CO2 as a references gas, the GPP_P and GPP_S for the non-CO2 species are larger than the corresponding GTP values. For BC emissions, the atmospheric forcing is sufficiently strong that the GPP_S is opposite in sign to the GTP_S. The sensitivity of these values to a number of input parameters is explored. The GPP can also be used to evaluate the contribution of different emissions to precipitation change during or after a period of emissions. As an illustration, the precipitation changes resulting from emissions in 2008 (using the GPP_P) and emissions sustained at 2008 levels (using the GPP_S) are presented. These indicate that for periods of 20 years (after the 2008 emissions) and 50 years (for sustained emissions at 2008 levels) methane is the dominant driver of positive precipitation changes due to those emissions. For sustained emissions, the sum of the effect of the five species included here does not become positive until after 50 years, by which time the global surface temperature increase exceeds 1 K.

Perception of bitterness, sweetness and liking of different genotypes of lettuce

Lettuce is an important leafy vegetable, consumed across the world, containing bitter sesquiterpenoid lactone (SL) compounds that may negatively affect consumer acceptance and consumption. We assessed liking of samples with differing absolute abundance and different ratios of bitter:sweet compounds by analysing recombinant inbred lines (RILs) from an interspecific lettuce mapping population derived from a cross between a wild (L. serriola acc. UC96US23) and domesticated lettuce, (L. sativa, cv. Salinas). We found that the ratio of bitter:sweet compounds was a key determinant of bitterness perception and liking. We were able to demonstrate that SLs such as 8-deoxylactucin-15-sulphate contribute most strongly to bitterness perception, whilst 15-p-hydroxylphenylacetyllactucin-8-sulphate does not contribute to bitter taste. Glucose was the sugar most highly correlated with sweetness perception. There is a genetic basis to the biochemical composition of lettuce. This information will be useful in lettuce breeding programmes in order to produce leaves with more favourable taste profiles.

Heathland restoration on former agricultural land: effects of artificial acidification on the availability and uptake of toxic metal cations

Lowland heath is an internationally important habitat type that has greatly declined in abundance throughout Western Europe. In recent years this has led to a growing interest in the restoration of heathland on agricultural land. This generally requires the use of chemical treatments to return soil chemical conditions to those appropriate for the support of heathland ecosystems. However, the potential for negative impacts on the environment due to the potential of these treatments to increase the availability of trace metals via raised soil acidity requires investigation. A large-scale field study investigated the effect of two chemical treatments used in heathland restoration, elemental sulphur and ferrous sulphate, on soil acidity and whether it is possible to predict the effect of the treatments on availability of two potentially toxic cations (Al and Cd) in the soil along with their subsequent accumulation in the shoots of the grass Agrostis capillaris. Results showed that both treatments decreased soil pH, but that only elemental sulphur produced a pH similar to heathland soil. The availability of Al, measured by extraction with 1 M ammonium nitrate, could not be predicted by soil pH, depth in the soil and total Al concentration in the soil. By contrast, availability of Cd could be predicted from these three variables. Concentrations of both Al and Cd in the shoots of A. capillaris showed no significant relationship with the extractable concentration in the soil. Results are discussed in light of the possible environmental impacts of the chemical restoration techniques.

Media damage following detergent sclerotherapy appears to be secondary to the induction of inflammation and apoptosis: an immunohistochemical study elucidating previous histological observations

Objective/Background: Traditionally, sclerotherapy has been thought to work by the cytotoxic effect of the sclerosant upon the endothelium alone. However, studies have shown that sclerotherapy is more successful in smaller veins than in larger veins. This could be explained by the penetration of the sclerosant, or its effect, into the media. This study aimed to investigate intimal and medial damage profiles after sclerosant treatment. Methods: Fresh human varicose veins were treated ex vivo with either 1% or 3% sodium tetradecyl sulphate (STS) for 1 or 10 minutes. The effect of the sclerosant on the vein wall was investigated by immunofluorescent labelling of transverse vein sections using markers for endothelium (CD31), smooth muscle (a-actin), apoptosis (p53) and inflammation (intercellular adhesion molecule-1 [ICAM-1]). Polidocanol (POL; 3%) treatment at 10 minutes was similarly investigated. Results: Endothelial cell death was concentration- and time-dependent for STS but incomplete for both sclerosants. Time, but not concentration, significantly affected cell death (p > .001). A 40% and 30% maximum reduction was observed for STS and POL, respectively. Destruction of 20e30% of smooth muscle cells was found up to 250 mm from the lumen after 3% STS treatment for 10 minutes. POL treatment for 10 minutes showed inferior destruction of medial cells. Following STS treatment and 24-hour tissue culture, p53 and ICAM-1 were upregulated to a depth of around 300 mm. This effect was not observed with POL. Conclusion: Inflammatory and apoptotic markers show the same distribution as medial cell death, implying that sclerotherapy with STS works by inducing apoptosis in the vein wall rather than having an effect restricted to the endothelium. Incomplete loss of endothelial cells and penetration of the sclerosant effect up to 250 mm into the media suggest that medial damage is crucial to the success of sclerotherapy and may explain why it is less effective in larger veins.

The impact of European legislative and technology measures to reduce air pollutants on air quality, human health and climate

European air quality legislation has reduced emissions of air pollutants across Europe since the 1970s, affecting air quality, human health and regional climate. We used a coupled composition-climate model to simulate the impacts of European air quality legislation and technology measures implemented between 1970 and 2010. We contrast simulations using two emission scenarios; one with actual emissions in 2010 and the other with emissions that would have occurred in 2010 in the absence of technological improvements and end-of-pipe treatment measures in the energy, industrial and road transport sectors. European emissions of sulphur dioxide, black carbon (BC) and organic carbon in 2010 are 53%, 59% and 32% lower respectively compared to emissions that would have occurred in 2010 in the absence of legislative and technology measures. These emission reductions decreased simulated European annual mean concentrations of fine particulate matter(PM2.5) by 35%, sulphate by 44%, BC by 56% and particulate organic matter by 23%. The reduction in PM2.5 concentrations is calculated to have prevented 80 000 (37 000–116 000, at 95% confidence intervals) premature deaths annually across the European Union, resulting in a perceived financial benefit to society of US$232 billion annually (1.4% of 2010 EU GDP). The reduction in aerosol concentrations due to legislative and technology measures caused a positive change in the aerosol radiative effect at the top of atmosphere, reduced atmospheric absorption and also increased the amount of solar radiation incident at the surface over Europe. We used an energy budget approximation to estimate that these changes in the radiative balance have increased European annual mean surface temperatures and precipitation by 0.45 ± 0.11 °C and by 13 ± 0.8 mm yr−1 respectively. Our results show that the implementation of European legislation and technological improvements to reduce the emission of air pollutants has improved air quality and human health over Europe, as well as having an unintended impact on the regional radiative balance and climate.

Effects of rain shelter or simulated rain during grain filling and maturation on subsequent wheat grain quality in the UK

The effects of simulated additional rain (ear wetting, 25 mm) or of rain shelter imposed at different periods after anthesis on grain quality at maturity and the dynamics of grain filling and desiccation were investigated in UK field-grown crops of wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cvar Tybalt) in 2011 and in 2012 when June–August rainfall was 255.0 and 214.6 mm, respectively, and above the decadal mean (157.4 mm). Grain filling and desiccation were quantified well by broken-stick regressions and Gompertz curves, respectively. Rain shelter for 56 (2011) or 70 d (2012) after anthesis, and to a lesser extent during late maturation only, resulted in more rapid desiccation and hence progress to harvest maturity whereas ear wetting had negligible effects, even when applied four times. Grain-filling duration was also affected as above in 2011, but with no significant effect in 2012. In both years, there were strong positive associations between final grain dry weight and duration of filling. The treatments affected all grain quality traits in 2011: nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) concentrations, N:S ratio, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation volume, Hagberg Falling Number (HFN), and the incidence of blackpoint. Only N concentration and blackpoint were affected significantly by treatments in 2012. Rain shelter throughout grain filling reduced N concentration, whereas rain shelter reduced the incidence of blackpoint and ear wetting increased it. In 2011, rain shelter throughout reduced S concentration, increased N:S ratio and reduced SDS. Treatment effects on HFN were not consistent within or between years. Nevertheless, a comparison between the extreme treatment means in 2012 indicated damage from late rain combined with ear wetting resulted in a reduction of c. 0.7 s in HFN/mm August rainfall, whilst that between samples taken immediately after ear wetting at harvest maturity or 7 d later suggested recovery from damage to HFN upon re-drying in planta. Hence, the incidence of blackpoint was the only grain quality trait affected consistently by the diverse treatments. The remaining aspects of grain quality were comparatively resilient to rain incident upon developing and maturing ears of cvar Tybalt. No consistent temporal patterns of sensitivity to shelter or ear wetting were detected for any aspect of grain quality.

EVALUATION OF THE INTERACTION OF NUTRIENTS IN THE ZINC APPLICATION IN SEEDS OF THE RICE

The efficient fertilizer use contend micronutrient depends, also, of the interactions that occur with some nutrients. The objective was to study the interaction of zinc with the excessively nutrient ones in function of the application of different doses and sources of Zn saw seed in the culture of the rice. The experiment was carried through in conditions of vegetation house, in the FCAV/Unesp. The used experimental delineation was entirely cazualized, with three repetitions. The treatments had been five doses: 0; 1,0; 2,0; 4,0 and 8,0 g of Zn for kg of seed; e two zinc sources; sulphate of zinc (22% of Zn) and zinc oxide (50% of Zn). The experimental unit was a translucent polyethylene tray, filled with 5 washed thick sand, where 50 seeds of rice had been sown (to var. Caiapo). To the 30 days after the sowing, effected the cut of the plants, separating them in aerial part and roots. From the results of the dry substance and text of nutrients of the aerial part and root of the rice, the accumulation of the nutrients in the respective agencies of the plants was calculated. Becoming fullfilled it variance analysis and the when necessary unfoldings. It had effect of the interactions in distinguishing way between root and aerial part of rice, with regard to the doses and sources.

Trypanosoma cruzi: Isolation and characterization of aspartyl proteases

Two aspartyl proteases activities were identified and isolated from Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes: cruzipsin-I (CZP-I) and cruzipsin-II (CZP-II). One was isolated from a soluble fraction (CZP-II) and the other was solubilized with 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate(CZP-I). The molecular mass of both proteases was estimated to be 120 kDa by HPLC gel filtration and the activity of the enzymes was detected in a doublet of bands (56 and 48 kDa) by substrate-sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide-gelatin gel electrophoresis. Substrate specificity studies indicated that the enzymes consistently hydrolyze the cathepsin D substrate Phe-Ala-Ala-Phe (4-NO(2))-Phe-Val-Leu-O(4)MP but failed to hydrolyze serine and other protease substrates. Both proteases activities were strongly inhibited by the classic inhibitor pepstatin-A (>= 68%) and the aspartic active site labeling agent, 1,2-epoxy-3-(phenyl-nitrophenoxy) propane (>= 80%). These findings show that both proteases are novel T. cruzi acidic proteases. The physiological function of these enzymes in T. cruzi has under investigation. (c) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

First dynamic kinetic resolution of selenium-containing chiral amines catalyzed by palladium (Pd/BaSO(4)) and Candida antartica lipase (CAL-B)

An efficient method for chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution of selenium-containing chiral amines (organoselenium-1-phenylethanamines) has been developed, leading to the corresponding amides in excellent enantioselectivities and high isolated yields. This one-pot procedure employs two different types of catalysts: Pd on barium sulphate (Pd/BaSO(4)) as racemization catalyst and lipase (CAL-B) as the resolution catalyst. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Koncentrisk hämning och stimulans av bakterietillväxt i agarkulturer

The aim of this study is to elucidate factors that effect growth of Sarcina lutea and Bacillus subtilis, exposed to the growth inhibitor SDS (Sodiumdodecylsulfat). Agar diffusion experiments revealed repeated, concentric zones of inhibition and stimulation upon exposure to Sodiumdodecylsulphate or to Amoxicillin. Temperature, nutrient concentration and inhibitor concentration were controlled. Formation of successively repeated zones of inhibition, stimulation, inhibition and stimulation is discussed: •The extension of the primary inhibition zone is due to the concentration of applied Sodium dodecyl sulphate.•Immediately outside the primary inhibition zone the bacteria have access to diffusing nutrients that have not been consumed in the primary inhabitation zone.•In zones of dense bacterial growth the bacteria may produce inhibiting substances, affecting growth of bacteria in adjacent zones.•In zones of dense bacterial growth the nutrients will soon become depleted, thus affecting bacteria in adjacent zones.

Influence of hardwood, softwoodand fractionated pulp in a stratifiedthree-layered fine paper : Lövved, barrved och fraktionerad massa ochdess inverkan på ett treskiktat finpapper

Four different trials of stratified three-layered fine paper, of sulphate pulp, were performed to investigate if stratified fine fraction or fibres from birch can improve the properties of a paper compared to a reference sheet. All trials had five different scenarios and each scenario was calendered with different linear load. All sheets had a grammage of 80 g/m2.In the first trial, the paper contained birch, pine and filler of calciumcarbonate (marble), and was manufactured with the pilot paper machine XPM and the stratified headbox Formator at RCF (Stora Enso Research Center in Falun). The furnish consisted of 75% birch and 25% pine.The second trial contained coated sheets with paper from trial one as the base paper. The coating slip contained calciumcarbonate and clay and the amount was approximately 10-12 g/m2.The third trial, also with birch and pine but without filler, was performed at STFI (Skogsindustrins Tekniska Forskningsinstitut in Stockholm) with the laboratory scaled paper machine StratEx and the stratified headbox AQ-vanes. The furnish consisted of 75% birch and 25% pine, except for one scenario which contained of 75% pine and 25% birch.The last trial contained fractionated pulp of birch and pine and was performed at STFI. 50% was fine fraction and 50% was coarse fraction.This test does not show any clear benefits of making stratified sheets of birch and pine when it comes to properties such as bending stiffness, tensile index and surface smoothness. The retention can be improved with birch in the surface plies. It is possible that the formation can be improved with birch in the surface plies and pine in the middle ply. It is also possible that fine fraction in the surface plies and coarse fraction in the middle ply can improve both surface smoothness and bending stiffness. The results in this test are shown with confidence intervals which points out the difficulties of analysing sheets manufactured with a pilot paper machine or a laboratory scaled paper machine.

Performance of constructed evaporation ponds for disposal of smelter waster water: a case study at Portland Aluminum, Victoria, Australia

The construction of evaporative ponds and wetlands for the disposal of waste water high in ionic concentrations is a waste disposal strategy currently considered by many industries. However, the design, construction and management of these ponds and wetlands are not straightforward as complex chemical interactions result in both spatial and temporal changes in water quality. The effects of evaporation and drainage on the water quality in two constructed ponds, an adjacent man-made wetland and local groundwater at Portland Aluminium were investigated. The minimum volume of water entering the ponds during the study period was 0.96±0.16 ML per month. The predicted theoretical evaporative capacity of the two ponds was calculated to be 0.30±0.07 ML per month. More water enters the ponds than it is theoretically possible to evaporate under the ambient weather conditions at Portland, yet the ponds do not overflow, suggesting percolation through the pond lining. No spatial differences in solute concentrations (fluoride, sulphate, bicarbonate, carbonate, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions) were found within the waters of either pond, although temporal differences were apparent. The results support the conclusion that the ponds are not impermeable, and that much of the waste water entering the ponds is being lost through seepage. The impacts on local groundwater chemistry of this seepage are addressed. Significant correlations exist between solute presence within and between the ponds, wetland and groundwater. Fluoride and sulphate concentrations were significantly higher in pond waters throughout the duration of the experiment. Pond sediments revealed a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the concentration of all monitored ions resulting from the chemical heterogeneity of the material making up the pond linings. Adsorption isotherms for fluoride indicate that the adsorption capacity of the pond linings remains high for this ion. Implications for the management of waste water by this strategy are discussed.

Nicotine treatment decreases food intake and body weight via a leptin-independent pathway in Psammomys obesus

It has been reported previously that leptin may be involved in nicotine's ability to reduce body weight. Our aim was to investigate whether the anorexic action of nicotine is related to the actions of leptin by utilizing lean leptin-sensitive and obese leptin-resistant Psammomys obesus. Lean and obese P. obesus were assigned to receive nicotine sulphate at 6, 9 or 12 mg/day or saline (control) for 9 days (n = 6-10 in each group), administered using mini-osmotic pumps. Food intake, body weight, plasma leptin concentrations, plasma insulin and blood glucose were measured at baseline and throughout the study period. Nicotine treatment reduced food intake by up to 40% in lean and obese P. obesus. Plasma leptin levels fell significantly only in lean nicotine-treated animals, whereas no changes were observed in obese nicotine-treated animals. However, both lean and obese nicotine-treated animals had similar reductions in body weight. Our results show that nicotine has dramatic effects on food intake and body weight, however, these changes appear to be independent of the leptin signalling pathway.

Pyrite framboids interpreted as microbial colonies within the Permian Zoophycos spreiten from southeastern Australia

Two types of pyrite framboids (PF, probably sulphate-reducing bacteria) have been found
within the Zoophycos spreiten, hosted in the Guadalupian (Middle Permian) glaciomarine greywacke
of the Westley Park Sandstone Member within the Broughton Formation from the southern Sydney
Basin of southeastern Australia. They are composed of non-sheathed (PF1) and sheathed (PF2)
sub-micron balls, respectively. Chemically, the sub-micron balls consist of iron, sulphur, carbon and
oxygen. Both PF1 and PF2 occur in rhythmic alternationwithin the thick, light-grey and thin, dark-grey
minor lamellae of Zoophycos spreiten. The framboids from the minor lamellae are highly abundant and
occur in an orderly arrangement of equal density and in a good state of preservation.Within Zoophycos
spreiten no homogeneous filling, fecal pellets, or any sign of re-exploitation of the minor lamellae have
been recognized. No similar framboids have been observed outside Zoophycos spreiten. Therefore, the
framboids are interpreted as the pyritized remains of microbial colonies within Zoophycos spreiten.
The trace Zoophycos would be a multifunctional garden thatmay have been carefully constructed by the
Zoophycos maker, where different microbial colonies were orderly and carefully planted and cultured
within different minor lamellae. Further, it is proposed that the Zoophycos maker had a symbiotic
relationship with microbial colonies on the mutual basis of food supply and redox conditions. The fact
that the overlying spreiten cut the underlying ones indicates that the Zoophycos from the study area is
of an upward construction. The rhythmic alternation of both the thick, light-grey and thin, dark-grey
minor lamellae within Zoophycos spreiten may be suggestive of a gardening manner of the Zoophycos
maker responding to the warm and cold changes, food supply in pulses and variations of sedimentation
rate for planting and culturing microbial colonies under the conditions of a glaciomarine environment
at the high latitudes.

Substrates and inhibitors of human multidrug resistance associated proteins and the implications in drug development

Human contains 49 ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes and the multidrug resistance associated proteins (MRP1/ABCC1, MRP2/ABCC2, MRP3/ABCC3, MRP4/ABCC4, MRP5/ABCC5, MRP6/ABCC6, MRP7/ABCC10, MRP8/ABCC11 and MRP9/ABCC12) belong to the ABCC family which contains 13 members. ABCC7 is cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; ABCC8 and ABCC9 are the sulfonylurea receptors which constitute the ATP-sensing subunits of a complex potassium channel. MRP10/ABCC13 is clearly a pseudo-gene which encodes a truncated protein that is highly expressed in fetal human liver with the highest similarity to MRP2/ABCC2 but without transporting activity. These transporters are localized to the apical and/or basolateral membrane of the hepatocytes, enterocytes, renal proximal tubule cells and endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier. MRP/ABCC members transport a structurally diverse array of important endogenous substances and xenobiotics and their metabolites (in particular conjugates) with different substrate specificity and transport kinetics. The human MRP/ABCC transporters except MRP9/ABCC12 are all able to transport organic anions, such as drugs conjugated to glutathione, sulphate or glucuronate. In addition, selected MRP/ABCC members may transport a variety of endogenous compounds, such as leukotriene C(4) (LTC(4) by MRP1/ABCC1), bilirubin glucuronides (MRP2/ABCC2, and MRP3/ABCC3), prostaglandins E1 and E2 (MRP4/ABCC4), cGMP (MRP4/ABCC4, MRP5/ABCC5, and MRP8/ABCC11), and several glucuronosyl-, or sulfatidyl steroids. In vitro, the MRP/ABCC transporters can collectively confer resistance to natural product anticancer drugs and their conjugated metabolites, platinum compounds, folate antimetabolites, nucleoside and nucleotide analogs, arsenical and antimonial oxyanions, peptide-based agents, and in concert with alterations in phase II conjugating or biosynthetic enzymes, classical alkylating agents, alkylating agents. Several MRP/ABCC members (MRPs 1-3) are associated with tumor resistance which is often caused by an increased efflux and decreased intracellular accumulation of natural product anticancer drugs and other anticancer agents. Drug targeting of these transporters to overcome MRP/ABCC-mediated multidrug resistance may play a role in cancer chemotherapy. Most MRP/ABCC transporters are subject to inhibition by a variety of compounds. Based on currently available preclinical and limited clinical data, it can be expected that modulation of MRP members may represent a useful approach in the management of anticancer and antimicrobial drug resistance and possibly of inflammatory diseases and other diseases. A better understanding of their substrates and inhibitors has important implications in development of drugs for treatment of cancer and inflammation.