Organic inputs, tillage and rotation practices influence soil health and suppressiveness to soilborne pests and pathogens of ginger.

A field experiment was established in which an amendment of poultry manure and sawdust (200 t/ha) was incorporated into some plots but not others and then a permanent pasture or a sequence of biomass-producing crops was grown with and without tillage, with all biomass being returned to the soil. After 4 years, soil C levels were highest in amended plots, particularly those that had been cropped using minimum tillage, and lowest in non-amended and fallowed plots, regardless of how they had been tilled. When ginger was planted, symphylans caused severe damage to all treatments, indicating that cropping, tillage and organic matter management practices commonly used to improve soil health are not necessarily effective for all crops or soils. During the rotational phase of the experiment, the development of suppressiveness to three key pathogens of ginger was monitored using bioassays. Results for root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) indicated that for the first 2 years, amended soil was more suppressive than non-amended soil from the same cropping and tillage treatment, whereas under pasture, the amendment only enhanced suppressiveness in the first year. Suppressiveness was generally associated with higher C levels and enhanced biological activity (as measured by the rate of fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis and numbers of free-living nematodes). Reduced tillage also enhanced suppressiveness, as gall ratings and egg counts in the second and third years were usually significantly lower in cropped soils under minimum rather than conventional tillage. Additionally, soil that was not disturbed during the process of setting up bioassays was more suppressive than soil which had been gently mixed by hand. Results of bioassays with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi were too inconsistent to draw firm conclusions, but the severity of fusarium yellows was generally higher in fumigated fallow soil than in other treatments, with soil management practices having little impact on disease severity. With regard to Pythium myriotylum, biological factors capable of reducing rhizome rot were present, but were not effective enough to suppress the disease under environmental conditions that were ideal for disease development.

Paddock to Reef Monitoring and Evaluation: Economic analysis of ABCD cane management practices for the Mackay Whitsunday region

The economic analysis is based on the A, B, C and D management practice framework for water quality improvement developed in 2007/2008 by the respective natural resource management region. The Mackay Whitsunday ABCD management framework for sugarcane management practices was published in 2009 by the Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries (DPI&F), following the original version that was published in the Water Quality Improvement Plan: final report for Mackay Whitsunday region (2008).

Economic case study of ABCD cane management practices in the Burdekin River Irrigation Area (BRIA) region

A case study was undertaken to determine the economic impact of a change in management class as detailed in the A, B, C and D management class framework. This document focuses on the implications of changing from D to C, C to B and B to A class management in the Burdekin River irrigation area (BRIA) and if the change is worthwhile from an economic perspective. This report provides a guide to the economic impact that may be expected when undertaking a particular change in farming practices and will ultimately lead to more informed decisions being made by key industry stakeholders. It is recognised that these management classes have certain limitations and in many cases the grouping of practices may not be reflective of the real situation. The economic case study is based on the A, B, C and D management class framework for water quality improvement developed in 2007/2008 for the Burdekin natural resource management region. The framework for the Burdekin is currently being updated to clarify some issues and incorporate new knowledge since the earlier version of the framework. However, this updated version is not yet complete and so the Paddock to Reef project has used the most current available version of the framework for the modelling and economics. As part of the project specification, sugarcane crop production data for the BRIA was provided by the APSIM model. The information obtained from the APSIM crop modelling programme included sugarcane yields and legume grain yield (legume grain yield only applies to A class management practice). Because of the complexity involved in the economic calculations, a combination of the FEAT, PiRisk and a custom made spreadsheet was used for the economic analysis. Figures calculated in the FEAT program were transferred to the custom made spreadsheet to develop a discounted cash flow analysis. The marginal cash flow differences for each farming system were simulated over a 5-year and 10-year planning horizon to determine the net present value of changing across different management practices. PiRisk was used to test uncertain parameters in the economic analysis and the potential risk associated with a change in value.

Economic case study of ABCD cane management practices in the Burdekin Delta region.

A case study was undertaken to determine the economic impact of a change in management class as detailed in the A, B, C and D management class framework. This document focuses on the implications of changing from D to C, C to B and B to A class management in the Burdekin Delta region and if the change is worthwhile from an economic perspective. This report provides a guide to the economic impact that may be expected when undertaking a particular change in farming practices and will ultimately lead to more informed decisions being made by key industry stakeholders. It is recognised that these management classes have certain limitations and in many cases the grouping of practices may not be reflective of the real situation. The economic case study is based on the A, B, C and D management class framework for water quality improvement developed in 2007/2008 for the Burdekin natural resource management region. The framework for the Burdekin is currently being updated to clarify some issues and incorporate new knowledge since the earlier version of the framework. However, this updated version is not yet complete and so the Paddock to Reef project has used the most current available version of the framework for the modelling and economics. As part of the project specification, sugarcane crop production data for the Burdekin Delta region was provided by the APSIM model. The information obtained from the APSIM crop modelling programme included sugarcane yields and legume grain yield (legume grain yield only applies to A class management practice). Because of the complexity involved in the economic calculations, a combination of the FEAT, PiRisk and a custom made spreadsheet was used for the economic analysis. Figures calculated in the FEAT program were transferred to the custom made spreadsheet to develop a discounted cash flow analysis. The marginal cash flow differences for each farming system were simulated over a 5-year and 10-year planning horizon to determine the Net Present Value of changing across different management practices. PiRisk was used to test uncertain parameters in the economic analysis and the potential risk associated with a change in value.

Economic case study of ABCD cane management practices in the Tully region

A case study was undertaken to determine the economic impact of a change in management class as detailed in the A, B, C and D management class framework. This document focuses on the implications of changing from D to C, C to B and B to A class management in the Tully region and if the change is worthwhile from an economic perspective. This report provides a guide to the economic impact that may be expected when undertaking a particular change in farming practices and will ultimately lead to more informed decisions being made by key industry stakeholders. It is recognised that these management classes have certain limitations and in many cases the grouping of practices may not be reflective of the real situation. The economic case study is based on the A, B, C and D management class framework for water quality improvement developed in 2007/2008 by the wet tropics natural resource management region. The framework for wet tropics is currently being updated to clarify some issues and incorporate new knowledge since the earlier version of the framework. However, this updated version is not yet complete and so the Paddock to Reef project has used the most current available version of the framework for the modelling and economics. As part of the project specification, sugarcane crop production data for the Tully region was provided by the APSIM model. Because of the complexity involved in the economic calculations, a combination of the FEAT, PiRisk and a custom made spreadsheet was used for the economic analysis. Figures calculated in the FEAT program were transferred to the custom made spreadsheet to develop a discounted cash flow analysis. The marginal cash flow differences for each farming system were simulated over a 5-year and 10-year planning horizon to determine the Net Present Value of changing across different management practices. PiRisk was used to test uncertain parameters in the economic analysis and the potential risk associated with a change in value.

Texture dependent stress corrosion failure of commercial titanium sheets in bromine-methanol solution

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) characteristics of agr-titanium sheets in a bromine-methanol solution have been studied in the annealed and cold-rolled conditions using longitudinal and transverse specimens. The times to failure for annealed longitudinal specimens were longer than those for similarly tested transverse specimens. The cold-rolled specimens developed resistance to SCC, but failed by cleavage when notched, unlike the intergranular separation in annealed titanium. The apparent activation energy was found to be texture dependent and was in the range 30 to 51 kJ mol–1 for annealed titanium, and 15kJ mol–1 for cold-rolled titanium. The dependence of SCC behaviour on the texture is related to the changes in the crack initiation times. These are caused by changes in the passivation and repassivation characteristics of the particular thickness plane. The thickness planes are identified with the help of X-ray pole figures obtained on annealed and cold-rolled material. On the basis of the activation energy and the electrochemical measurements, the mechanism of SCC in annealed titanium is identified to be the one involving stress-aided anodic dissolution. On the other hand, the results on the cold-rolled titanium are in support of the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism consisting of hydride precipitation. The cleavage planes identified from the texture data match with the reported habit planes for hydride formation.

Agroforestry systems for sustainable livelihoods and improved land management in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

Forest destruction for agriculture continues to be a major threat to the rich biological diversity in the East Usambara Mountains in the north-eastern corner of Tanzania. The highest ratio of endemic plant and animal species found on 100 km2 anywhere in the world is depending on the remaining natural forests. Forests are vitally important for the local population in many different ways, and nationally they are an important source of water and hydroelectricity. The soils, of low fertility and mostly acidic Ferrasols, mainly have the nutrients in the topsoil. After clear-cutting, the soils soon become poor when the topsoil is eroded. High-value cardamom is nowadays unsustainably cultivated in the natural forests of the East Usambaras. The general aim was to study the possibilities to develop new profitable and sustainable agroforestry systems for the benefit of the local people that could contribute to relieving the pressure on the remaining natural forests in the East Usambara Mountains. Results from a spice crop agroforestry trial, established in cooperation with a local farmer, showed a clear advantage of intercropping cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and black pepper (Piper nigrum) with trees, especially with Grevillea robusta. The nitrogen fixing tree species Gliricidia sepium also improved the nitrogen and organic matter content of the soil over levels found in the natural forest. With improved agroforestry methods for spice production the households generated as much as13 times the net income obtained with traditional forest cultivation practices. There are thus sustainable and profitable ways to cultivate spices as cash crops in well-managed homegardens. However, the farmers need stable markets, access to credit and comprehensive extension services. The soil fertility depletion should be reversed with organic manure application and an enabling policy environment for the smallholder-farming sector. Strong farmers organisations and equal rights to resources and decision-making are needed. Organic spices have an increasing demand, and their export would be profitable for these farmers. What is, however, most needed for a change is a political will of a government that understands the importance of agricultural and forestry development for poverty reduction.

Kohti hyvää suometsien hoitoa : harvennusten ja kunnostusojitusten vaikutus ojitusaluemänniköiden puuntuotokseen ja metsänkasvatuksen taloustulokseen

This thesis examines the impacts of silvicultural activities on productivity and financial returns of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands on drained peatlands in Finland. The effects of ditch network maintenance operations (DNM) and thinnings, with different timings and intensities, were studied. Based on stand development simulations, the best regimes for different types of stands according to site type, climatic area, and stand silvicultural status were defined from the viewpoint of both wood production and financial profitability. Certain aspects affecting the management outcomes, such as the timing of the first thinning, were examined using data from thinning experiments. Long-term predictions of the impacts of different management regimes were carried out by simulating the development of well-representative model-stands which were composed from appropriate inventory data sets. The MOTTI stand simulator used to perform the simulations enables the predictions by utilizing specific models for drained peatland stands. In addition to natural stand dynamics, these models describe the effects of silvicultural treatments on the development of a given stand. The mean annual increment of merchantable wood (MAImerch) was used as the measure of wood productivity, and the financial feasibility of the regimes was compared using net present value (NPV) analysis. Silvicultural treatments, when applied to appropriately match stand condition, increased both the productivity and financial returns of stand management. Applying DNM resulted in a small increase in MAImerch. When thinning was introduced along with DNM, their combined effect on wood productivity was considerable. According to current operational practices, DNM is generally combined with thinning. In some cases, e.g., in sites of low productivity, the need for DNM may become apparent prior to the thinning stage. As for profitability, thinnings proved to be crucial. The regimes with heavy and late thinnings were generally more profitable than those with normal thinnings. Further, early thinning (relative to stand volume) lacked appeal when seeking a financially profitable removal from the first thinning. In young stands with an initially poor silvicultural condition, however, applying even a low-yielding first thinning considerably increased the NPV when compared to a regime with no thinning at all. Generally, the regimes resulting in the best profitability included heavier thinnings and fewer DNM and thinning treatments than did the regimes resulting in the best yield results. This study demonstrates considerable potential for profitable wood production-oriented management in pine stands on drained peatlands despite their challenging circumstances and long rotations. The results can be used for defining new and more site-specific silvicultural guidelines for various types of drained, pine-dominated peatland stands within the entire range of boreal conditions.

Community forestry and environmental literacy in northern Thailand : Towards collaborative natural resource management and conservation

Conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests needs a holistic approach: in addition to ecological concerns, socio-economic issues including cultural aspects must be taken into consideration. An ability to adapt practices is a key to successful collaborative natural resource management. Achieving this requires local participation and understanding of local conceptions of the environment. This study examined these issues in the context of northern Thailand. Northern uplands are the home of much of the remaining natural forest in Thailand and several ethnic minority groups commonly referred to as hill tribes. The overall purpose of this study was to grasp a regional view of an ethnically diverse forested area and to elicit prospects to develop community forestry for conservation purposes and for securing people s livelihood. Conservation was a central goal of management as the forests in the area were largely designated as protected. The aim was to study local perceptions, objectives, values and practices of forest management, under the umbrella of the concept environmental literacy, as well as the effects of forest policy on community management goals and activities. Environmental literacy refers to holistic understanding of the environment. It was used as a tool to examine people s views, interests, knowledge and motivation associated to forests. The material for this study was gathered in six villages in Chiang Mai Province. Three minority groups were included in the study, the Karen, Hmong and Lawa, and also the Thai. Household and focus group interviews were conducted in the villages. In addition, officials at district, regional and national levels, workers of non-governmental organisations, and academics were interviewed, and some data were gathered from the students of a local school. The results showed that motivation for protecting the forests existed among each ethnic group studied. This was a result of culture and traditions evolved in the forest environment but also of a need to adapt to a changed situation and environment and to outside pressures. The consequences of deforestation were widely agreed on in the villages, and the impact of socio-economic changes on the forests and livelihood was also recognised. The forest was regarded as a source of livelihood providing land, products and services essential to the people inhabiting rural uplands. Traditions, fire control, cooperation, reforestation, separation of protected and utilisable areas, and rules were viewed as central for conservation. For the villagers, however, conservation meant sustainable use, whereas the government has tended to prefer strict restrictions on forest resource use. Thus, conflicts had arisen. Between communities, cooperation was more dominant than conflict. The results indicated that the heterogeneity of forest dwellers, although it has to be recognised, should not be overemphasised: ethnic diversity can be considered as no major obstacle for successful community forestry. Collaborative management is particularly important in protected areas in order to meet the conservation goals while providing opportunities for livelihood. Forest management needs more positive incentives and increased dialogue.

Commercial products from bio-active extractives in cypress milling residues.

Extractive components obtained from milling residues of white cypress were studied for chemical identity and bioactivity with a view to developing a commercial use for these components, thus increasing the value of the residues and improving the economics of cypress sawn wood production. Extracts obtained by solvent or steam extraction techniques from cypress sawdust were each fractionated by a range of techniques into groups of similar compounds. Crude extracts and fractions were screened against a range of agricultural pests and diseases, including two fungi, subterranean termites, fruit spotting bugs, two-spotted mites, thrips, heliothis, banana scab moths, silverleaf whiteflies, cattle tick adults and larvae, and ruminant gastrointestinal nematodes. Additional screening was undertaken where encouraging results were achieved, for two-spotted mites, thrips, silverleaf whiteflies, cattle tick adults and ruminant gastrointestinal nematodes. After considering degrees of efficacy against, and economic importance of, the agricultural pests, and likely production costs of extracts and fractions, the crude extract (oil) produced by steam distillation was chosen for further study against silverleaf whitefly. A useful degree of control was achievable when this oil was applied to tomato or eggplant at 0.1%, with much less harmful effects on a beneficial insect. Activity of the oil against silverleaf whitefly was undiminished 3.5 years after it was generated. There was little benefit from supplementing the extract with co-formulated paraffinic oil. From the steam distilled oil, fifty-five compounds were characterised, thirty-five compounds representing 92.478 % of the oil, with guaiol (20.8%) and citronellic acid (15.9%) most abundant. These two compounds, and a group of oxygenated compounds containing bulnesol and a range of eudesmols, were found to account for most of the activity against silverleaf whitefly. This application was recommended for first progression to commercialisation.

Implementation costs of Agricultural Management Practices for Water Quality Improvement in the Great Barrier Reef Catchments. CSIRO: Water for Healthy Country National Research Flagship

Executive summary. In this report we analyse implementation costs and benefits for agricultural management practices, grouped into farming systems. In order to do so, we compare plot scale gross margins for the dominant agricultural production systems (sugarcane, grazing and banana cultivation) in the NRM regions Wet Tropics, Burdekin Dry Tropics and Mackay Whitsundays. Furthermore, where available, we present investment requirements for changing to improved farming systems. It must be noted that transaction costs are not captured within this project. For sugarcane, this economic analysis shows that there are expected benefits to sugarcane growers in the different regions through transitions to C and B class farming systems. Further transition to A-class farming systems can come at a cost, depending on the capital investment required and the length of the investment period. Obviously, the costs and benefits will vary for each individual grower and will depend on their starting point and individual property scenario therefore each circumstance needs to be carefully considered before making a change in management practice. In grazing, overall, reducing stocking rates comes at a cost (reduced benefits). However, when operating at low utilisation rates in wetter country, lowering stocking rates can potentially come at a benefit. With win-win potential, extension is preferred to assist farmer in changing management practices to improve their land condition. When reducing stocking rates comes at a cost, incentives may be applicable to support change among farmers. For banana cultivation, the results indicate that the transition to C and B class management practices is a worthwhile proposition from an economic perspective. For a change from B to A class farming systems however, it is not worthwhile from a financial perspective. This is largely due to the large capital investment associated with the change in irrigation system and negative impact in whole of farm gross margin. Overall, benefits will vary for each individual grower depending on their starting point and their individual property scenario. The results presented in this report are one possible set of figures to show the changes in profitability of a grower operating in different management classes. The results in this report are not prescriptive of every landholder. Landholders will have different costs and benefits from transitioning to improved practices, even if similar operations are practiced, hence it is recommended that landholders that are willing to change management undertake their own research and analysis into the expected costs and benefits for their own soil types and property circumstances.

Growing organic prawns - in inland saline waters

This report details the results of research into organic production of prawns in Australia. This has involved activities and experiments over two years at several sites and using a multidisciplinary approach. This includes farm trials at an inland demonstration prawn farm which solely utilises saline bore water, sample collection from two commercial prawn farms in coastal regions of south-eastern Queensland, replicated feed trials at one of DPI&F’s aquaculture research stations, specified feed manufacture at the laboratories of University of Queensland, and packaging and product storage trials and food analyses at two of DPI&F’s food technology laboratories. This work was designed to investigate and assist in the possible adoption of organic procedures by the Australian prawn farming industry. The import from Asia of cheaply produced prawns has forced all Australian prawn farmers to review their marketing procedures. Additionally investors are becoming increasingly concerned at the prospects for the expansion of this industry in Australia. Since the competition of seafood products in the marketplace is increasing on a global basis, alternate products are being investigated by those wishing to maintain and/or grow their market share. The premium paid for organic food products would hopefully provide an economic incentive for farmers to convert to organic production systems, with an added advantage that the standards that apply have beneficial implications also for the social and environmental practices of industry.

Swan’s Lagoon Celebrating 50 years

Swan’s Lagoon, which is 125 km south-south-west of Townsville, was purchased by the Queensland Government as a beef cattle research station in 1961. It is situated within the seasonally-dry tropical spear grass region of North Queensland. The station was expanded from 80 km2 to 340 km2 by purchase of the adjoining Expedition block in 1978. The first advisory committee formed and initiated research in 1961. The median annual rainfall of 708 mm (28 inches) is highly variable, with over 80% usually falling in December–April. Annual evaporation is 2.03 metres. The 60% of useable area is mostly flat with low fertility duplex soils, of which more than 50% is phosphorus deficient. Natural spear grass-based pastures predominate over the station. Swan’s Lagoon research has contributed to understanding the biology of many aspects of beef production for northern Australia. Research outcomes have provided options to deal with the region’s primary challenges of weaning rates averaging less than 60%, annual growth rates averaging as little as 100 kg, high mortality rates and high management costs. All these relate to the region’s variable and highly seasonal rainfall—challenges that add to insect-borne viruses, ticks, buffalo fly and internal parasites. As well as the vast amount of practical beef production science produced at Swan’s Lagoon, generations of staff have been trained there to support beef producers throughout Queensland and northern Australia to increase their business efficiency. The Queensland Government has provided most of the funds for staffing and operations. Strong beef industry support is reflected in project funding from meat industry levies, managed by Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) and its predecessors. MLA has consistently provided the majority of operational research funding since the first grant for ‘Studies of management practices, adaption of different breeds and strains to tropical environments, and studies on tick survival and resistance’ in 1962–63. A large number of other agencies and commercial companies have also supported research.

Preference and performance of Diachasmimorpha kraussii (Fullaway) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on five commercial fruit species

Diachasmimorpha kraussii is a polyphagous endoparasitoid of dacine fruit flies. The fruit fly hosts of D. krausii, in turn, attack a wide range of fruits and vegetables. The role that fruits play in host selection behaviour of D. kraussii has not been previously investigated. This study examines fruit preference of D. kraussii through a laboratory choice-test trial and field fruit sampling. In the laboratory trial, oviposition preference and offspring performance measures (sex ratio, developmental time, body length, hind tibial length) of D. kraussii were investigated with respect to five fruit species [Psidium guajava L. (guava), Prunis persica L. (peach), Malus domestica Borkh. (apple), Pyrus communis L. (pear) and Citrus sinensis L. (orange)], and two fruit fly species (Bactrocera jarvisi and B. tryoni). Diachasmimorpha kraussii responded to infested fruit of all fruit types in both choice and no-choice tests, but showed stronger preference for guava and peach in the choice tests irrespective of the species of fly larvae within the fruit. The wasp did not respond to uninfested fruit. The offspring performance measures differed in a non-consistent fashion between the fruit types, but generally wasp offspring performed better in guava, peach and orange. The offspring sex ratio, except for one fruit/fly combination (B. jarvisi in apple), was always female biased. The combined results suggest that of the five fruits tested, guava and peach are the best fruit substrates for D. krausii. Field sampling indicated a non-random use of available, fruit fly infested fruit by D. kraussii. Fruit fly maggots within two fruit species, Plachonia careya and Terminalia catappa, had disproportionately higher levels of D. krausii parasitism than would be expected based on the proportion of different infested fruit species sampled, or levels of fruit fly infestation within those fruit.