Electrochemiluminescence and its application

The recent development of electrochemiluminescence and its application including quantitative analysis, surface analysis, dynamics research, electron transfer research, and light emitting device are reviewed.

Electrochemiluminescent determination of perchlorate by solvent extraction in the presence of Ru(bpy)(3)(2+)

A novel method for the highly sensitive determination of perchlorate was proposed. It was based on solvent extraction in the presence of Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) followed by Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) electrochemiluminescent determination. A linear calibration was obtained over the range of 0.1 to 10 mu mol l(-1) with a correlation coefficient of 0.998. The detection limit (S/N = 3) was 5.0 x 10(-8) mol l(-1). The relative standard deviation for 10 replicates of 1 mu mol l(-1) perchlorate was 1.6%. Interference studies suggest that this method is selective for the determination of perchlorate. Application of this method to the highly sensitive determination of other anions is suggested. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Effect of metal ions on Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) electrochemiluminescence

Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) was chosen for the investigation of the effect of metal ions on Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) electrochemiluminescence (ECL). Metal ions that are preferentially bound to the oxygen atoms (MIO) have no effect on the intensity of ECL except for Al3+ and Y3+, whereas metal ions that are preferentially bound to the nitrogen atoms (MIN) preclude the oxidation of EDTA and decrease the ECL intensity.

Synthesis and properties of Ru(phen)(2)(phen-NHCOCH2Br)(PF6)(2)

A new active material for ECL sensor. Ru(phen)(2)(phen-NHCH2Br)(PP6)(2). has been designed and synthesized. Its structure was confirmed by means of IR. MS and H-1 NMR. Also. some of its properties such as electrochemistry, fluorescence and ECL are reported.

Badanie reaktywności wybranych nienasyconych pochodnych β-diketonów i anilin w obecności alkilidenowych kompleksów rutenu typu Grubbsa

Wydział Chemii: Zakład Chemii Metaloorganicznej

Atomic layer deposition of copper for CMOS interconnects

This work concerns the atomic layer deposition (ALD) of copper. ALD is a technique that allows conformal coating of difficult topographies such as narrow trenches and holes or even shadowed regions. However, the deposition of pure metals has so far been less successful than the deposition of oxides except for a few exceptions. Challenges include difficulties associated with the reduction of the metal centre of the precursor at reasonable temperatures and the tendency of metals to agglomerate during the growth process. Cu is a metal of special technical interest as it is widely used for interconnects on CMOS devices. These interconnects are usually fabricated by electroplating, which requires the deposition of thin Cu seed layers onto the trenches and vias. Here, ALD is regarded as potential candidate for replacing the current PVD technique, which is expected to reach its limitations as the critical dimensions continue to shrink. This work is separated into two parts. In the first part, a laboratory-scale ALD reactor was constructed and used for the thermal ALD of Cu. In the second part, the potentials of the application of Cu ALD on industry scale fabrication were examined in a joint project with Applied Materials and Intel. Within this project precursors developed by industrial partners were evaluated on a 300 mm Applied Materials metal-ALD chamber modified with a direct RF-plasma source. A feature that makes ALD a popular technique among researchers is the possibility to produce high- level thin film coatings for micro-electronics and nano-technology with relatively simple laboratory- scale reactors. The advanced materials and surfaces group (AMSG) at Tyndall National Institute operates a range of home-built ALD reactors. In order to carry out Cu ALD experiments, modifications to the normal reactor design had to be made. For example a carrier gas mechanism was necessary to facilitate the transport of the low-volatile Cu precursors. Precursors evaluated included the readily available Cu(II)-diketonates Cu-bis(acetylacetonate), Cu-bis(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-hepta-3,5-dionate) and Cu-bis(1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoacetylacetonate) as well as the Cu-ketoiminate Cu-bis(4N-ethylamino- pent-3-en-2-onate), which is also known under the trade name AbaCus (Air Liquide), and the Cu(I)- silylamide 1,3-diisopropyl-imidazolin-2-ylidene Cu(I) hexamethyldisilazide ([NHC]Cu(hmds)), which was developed at Carleton University Ottawa. Forming gas (10 % H2 in Ar) was used as reducing agent except in early experiments where formalin was used. With all precursors an extreme surface selectivity of the deposition process was observed and significant growth was only achieved on platinum-group metals. Improvements in the Cu deposition process were obtained with [NHC]Cu(hmds) compared with the Cu(II) complexes. A possible reason is the reduced oxidation state of the metal centre. Continuous Cu films were obtained on Pd and indications for saturated growth with a rate of about 0.4 Å/cycle were found for deposition at 220 °C. Deposits obtained on Ru consisted of separated islands. Although no continuous films could be obtained in this work the relatively high density of Cu islands obtained was a clear improvement as compared to the deposits grown with Cu(II) complexes. When ultra-thin Pd films were used as substrates, island growth was also observed. A likely reason for this extreme difference to the Cu films obtained on thicker Pd films is the lack of stress compensation within the thin films. The most likely source of stress compensation in the thicker Pd films is the formation of a graded interlayer between Pd and Cu by inter-diffusion. To obtain continuous Cu films on more materials, reduction of the growth temperature was required. This was achieved in the plasma assisted ALD experiments discussed in the second part of this work. The precursors evaluated included the AbaCus compound and CTA-1, an aliphatic Cu-bis(aminoalkoxide), which was supplied by Adeka Corp.. Depositions could be carried out at very low temperatures (60 °C Abacus, 30 °C CTA-1). Metallic Cu could be obtained on all substrate materials investigated, but the shape of the deposits varied significantly between the substrate materials. On most materials (Si, TaN, Al2O3, CDO) Cu grew in isolated nearly spherical islands even at temperatures as low as 30 °C. It was observed that the reason for the island formation is the coalescence of the initial islands to larger, spherical islands instead of forming a continuous film. On the other hand, the formation of nearly two-dimensional islands was observed on Ru. These islands grew together forming a conductive film after a reasonably small number of cycles. The resulting Cu films were of excellent crystal quality and had good electrical properties; e.g. a resistivity of 2.39 µΩ cm was measured for a 47 nm thick film. Moreover, conformal coating of narrow trenches (1 µm deep 100/1 aspect ratio) was demonstrated showing the feasibility of the ALD process.

Mechanism of Shear Thickening in Reversibly Cross-linked Supramolecular Polymer Networks.

We report here the nonlinear rheological properties of metallo-supramolecular networks formed by the reversible cross-linking of semi-dilute unentangled solutions of poly(4-vinylpyridine) (PVP) in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The reversible cross-linkers are bis-Pd(II) or bis-Pt(II) complexes that coordinate to the pyridine functional groups on the PVP. Under steady shear, shear thickening is observed above a critical shear rate, and that critical shear rate is experimentally correlated with the lifetime of the metal-ligand bond. The onset and magnitude of the shear thickening depend on the amount of cross-linkers added. In contrast to the behavior observed in most transient networks, the time scale of network relaxation is found to increase during shear thickening. The primary mechanism of shear thickening is ascribed to the shear-induced transformation of intrachain cross-linking to interchain cross-linking, rather than nonlinear high tension along polymer chains that are stretched beyond the Gaussian range.

Self-assembled triple helicates with preferential helicity

The enantiomerically pure ligands LRR and LSS (N,N'-bis(-2,2'-bipyridyl-5-yl)carbonyl-(1S/R,2S/R)-(+/-)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane) have been synthesised by linking two 2,2'-bipyridine units by (R,R)- and (S,S)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane respectively. The crystal structure confirmed that the ligand had a twisted orientation between the two chelating units. The reaction of LRR and LSS with Fe(II), Co(III), Cd(II) and Zn(II) afforded dinuclear complexes confirmed by ES mass spectroscopy. CD spectroscopy indicated that the chiral diaminocyclohexane conferred helicity to the metal centre giving a dominant triple helicate diastereoisomer, with the LRR ligand giving a delta-configuration of each metal centre (P helicate) and the LSS ligand a lambda configuration (M helicate). 1H NMR spectroscopy confirmed a dominant major diastereoisomer with cadmium. The Zn(II) and Cd(II) complexes however were observed to undergo rapid ligand dissociation in solution.

Novel titania sol-gel derived film for luminescence-based oxygen sensing.

A novel method for the preparation of titania sol–gel derived oxygen sensors based on the ruthenium(II) dye, [Ru(bpy)3]2+, is described. A titania sol–gel paste film was cast onto microscope slides, and the dye ion-paired to the deprotonated, hydroxylated groups on the film's surface from an aqueous solution of the dye at pH 11. The resulting sensor film is extremely oxygen sensitive, with a PO2 (S = 1/2) value (i.e. the partial pressure of oxygen required in order to reduce the original, oxygen free, luminescence intensity by 50%) of 0.011 atm. The sensor undergoes 95% response to oxygen in 4 s, and shows 95% recovery of its luminescence in argon within 7 s.

Argilas aniónicas multifuncionais

O presente trabalho aborda a imobilização de vários complexos do tipo dioxomolibdénio(VI), dioxotungsténio(VI) e de cobre(II) em suportes do tipo hidróxidos duplos lamelares (LDHs). Numa primeira parte descrevem-se os suportes LDHs e a síntese e caracterização em solução e estado sólido de complexos catecolato cis-MoO2 e cis-WO2. Investigou-se depois a química de intercalação deste tipo de complexos, nomeadamente a influência dos LDHs percursores, temperatura de intercalação, excesso de anião e mudança de metal no complexo intercalado (M=Mo, W). De seguida foi estudada a imobilização de oxocomplexos de molibdénio(VI) num LDH com pilares de bipiridina dicarboxilato e procedeu-se à avaliação da sua aplicabilidade em reacções catalíticas de oxidação de álcoois e olefinas. Com o objectivo de desenvolver as aplicações dos LDHs com pilares foi estudada a imobilização de um complexo de cobre(II) neste material e avaliada a sua aplicação como catalizador na oxidação de substratos orgânicos.

Phthalocyanine-based systems: synthesis, properties and applications

A presente dissertação descreve a síntese e o estudo de propriedades fotofísicas e biológicas de sistemas baseados em ftalocianinas. Os sistemas sintetizados consistem em ftalocianinas contendo unidades de D-galactose, ciclodextrinas, [60]fulereno ou porfirinas. Na primeira parte da dissertação aborda-se a síntese de ftalocianinas substituídas com unidades de D-galactose, com o intuito de serem utilizadas como fotossensibilizadores em terapia fotodinâmica. A eficiência de geração de oxigénio singuleto induzida pelas glicoftalocianinas, bem como a sua actividade fotodinâmica in vitro em células HeLa são avaliadas. Adicionalmente são descritos os estudos de MALDI-MS/MS de dois pares de glicoftalocianinas isoméricas. Numa segunda parte, descrevem-se a síntese e a caracterização de sistemas supramoleculares de ftalocianinas ligadas a ciclodextrinas ou [60]fulereno. Foram desenvolvidas metodologias sintéticas para obter complexos ftalocianínicos de ruténio(II) substituídos axialmente com derivados de ciclodextrinas, e complexos ftalocianínicos de zinco(II) ligados covalentemente a ciclodextrinas. Descreve-se também a síntese de uma díade ftalocianina- [60]fulereno. A estratégia sintética envolve um peculiar primeiro passo, uma reacção de aminação redutiva, no qual se obtém uma ftalocianina funcionalizada com glicina, seguida da habitual reacção de cicloadição 1,3- dipolar. Na terceira parte, abordam-se sistemas dador-aceitador de díades porfirinaftalocianina, como modelos promissores para mimetizar sistemas fotossintéticos naturais. Diferentes tipos de díades porfirina-ftalocianina, ligadas através do grupo fenilo da posição meso ou da posição β-pirrólica da porfirina, são sintetizadas e caracterizadas. As abordagens sintéticas envolvem reacções de aminação catalisadas por paládio e reacções de condensação cruzada de dois ftalonitrilos adequadamente substituídos. Também se descrevem processos de transferência de energia e electrónica fotoinduzidos que se formam a partir das díades porfirina-ftalocianina.

Síntese e potenciais aplicações de novas porfirinas β-funcionalizadas

Neste trabalho é descrita a síntese de novos derivados porfirínicos com potencial aplicação em terapia fotodinâmica (PDT) e como quimiossensores para o reconhecimento molecular de catiões metálicos. Os novos compostos foram preparados usando como “template” 2-formil-5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina através de diferentes abordagens sintéticas, tais como, reações de cicloadição 1,3-dipolar ou reações do tipo condensação aldólica. Depois de uma breve introdução sobre porfirinas segue-se no capítulo 2 a descrição dos estudos de formilação de Vilsmeier-Haack dos complexos de Ni(II) e Cu(II) de meso-tetra-arilporfirinas realizados usando irradiação de microondas. Utilizando os complexos de Ni(II) e Cu(II) da 5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina foram considerados vários solventes, potências de irradiação e tempos de reação; as melhores condições encontradas foram aplicadas a outras mesotetra- arilporfirinas. Os derivados formilados resultantes da reação de formilação de Vilsmeier-Haack com irradiação de micro-ondas foram isolados em bons rendimentos e com significativa redução no tempo de reação, que passou de horas, em condiçoes clássicas de aquecimento, para minutos sob irradiação de micro-ondas. O “scale-up” da reação, nas condições estabelecidas, mostrou ser eficiente não sendo a reação afetada pelo aumento da quantidade de porfirina. O capítulo 3 descreve a reação de ciclo-adição 1,3-dipolar de meso-tetraarilporfirinas com iminas de nitrilo, geradas in situ por desidrobromação de hidrazono-α-bromoglioxilatos de etilo na presença de base. A reação de iminas de nitrilo com 5,10,15,20-tetraquis(pentafluorofenil)porfirina, na presença de K2CO3 em tolueno a refluxo, permitiu isolar novas pirazoloclorinas em rendimentos moderados. Foram investigadas as propriedades fotofísicas das novas clorinas e os resultados sugerem que duas delas apresentam potencialidades para serem utilizadas em PDT. Este tipo de reações foi estendida ao complexo 2-vinil-5,10,15,20- tetrafenilporfirinatozinco(II); este complexo reagiu com as iminas de nitrilo obtendo-se os correspondentes derivados porfirina-pirazolina em rendimentos que variaram entre valores de bom e de excelente. A regioquímica dos derivados porfirina-pirazolina formados foi elucidada por RMN e confirmada por difração de raios-X. O tratamento dos derivados porfirina-pirazolina com DDQ proporciona os correspondentes derivados porfirina-pirazol com rendimentos de moderados a excelentes. Quando os derivados porfirina-pirazolina foram submetidos a condições de hidrólise básica, observou-se não só a hidrólise do grupo éster presente no anel pirazolínico mas também a concomitante oxidação desta unidade heterocíclica, isolando-se assim, num único passo reacional, novos derivados de tipo porfirinapirazol com um grupo carboxílico. A descomplexação dos complexos de Zn(II) foi realizada na presença de TFA, tendo-se isolado quantitativamente os respetivos derivados na forma de bases livres.Foram estudadas algumas das propriedades fotofísicas de todos os compostos obtidos, quer na forma de complexos de Zn(II), quer na forma de base livre. Duma forma geral, todos os compostos preparados mostraram ser bons geradores de oxigénio singleto, o que os torna interessantes para possível utilização como fotossensibilizadores em PDT. No capítulo 4 é descrita a reação de 2-formil-5,10,15,20-tetrafenilporfirina com aril-cetonas e acetato de amónio, na presença de La(OTf)3, o que permitiu isolar novas benzoporfirinas e 2-(2,6-diarilpiridina-4-il)porfirinas. Esta metodologia foi utilizada para preparar, pela primeira vez, uma 2-(2,2':6,2''- terpiridin-4-il)porfirina. As estruturas de duas das 2-(2,6-diarilpiridin-4- il)porfirinas foram confirmadas por difração de raios-X de cristal único. A metodologia descrita permite ainda preparar novos derivados de tipo porfirinacalcona, apenas com pequenos ajustes nas condições reacionais através de uma reação do tipo condensação aldólica. Os derivados do tipo porfirinacalcona foram posteriormente usados para preparar derivados do tipo porfirinapirazol 1,3,5-tri-substituídos em bons rendimentos, através de reação de condensação com fenil-hidrazina. Em cada um dos capítulos é descrito os procedimentos experimentais e a caracterização espectroscópica (RMN, UV-vis e massa) dos novos compostos isolados. Em alguns casos foi necessário o recurso a técnicas de RMN bidimensionais como COSY, NOESY, HSQC e HMBC. Os compostos preparados neste trabalho foram ainda objecto de estudos de avaliação das respetivas potencialidades para actuarem como quimiossensores para o reconhecimento de catiões metálicos, nomeadamente, Cu(II), Ag(I), Zn(II), Cd(II) e Hg(II). Assim no capítulo 5 é descrita a caracterização fotofísica dos compostos preparados no capítulo 4 e, os estudos destes como potenciais quimiossensores. Os estudos para verificar a potencialidade dos compostos como quimiossensores foram efectuados: i) em solução, através de titulações espectrofotométricas e espectrofluorimétricas, ii) no estado sólido, recorrendo à preparação de filmes de PMMA dopados com os ligandos porfirínicos em estudo e, iii) na fase gasosa, seguindo as titulações dos ligandos com metais por espectrometria de massa (MALDI-TOF-MS). Os compostos estudados mostraram ter capacidade para atuarem como quimiossensores de catiões metálicos capazes de distinguirem entre os iões Zn(II) e Hg(II).

Ditopic molecular architectures for the recognition of anionic species

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Chemistry

Spin labile conducting metallopolymers : a new architecture for hybrid multifunctional materials

The synthesis of 3-ethynylthienyl- (2.07), 3-ethynylterthienyl- (2.19) substituted qsal [qsalH = N-(8-quinolyl)salicylaldimine] and 3,3' -diethynyl-2,2' -bithienyl bridging bisqsal (5.06) ligands are described along with the preparation and characterization of eight cationic iron(III) complexes containing these ligands with a selection of counteranions [(2.07) with: SCN- (2.08), PF6- (2.09), and CI04- (2.10); (2.19) with PF6 - (2.20); (5.06) with: cr (5.07), SeN- (5.08), PF6- (5.09), and CI04- (5.10)]. Spin-crossover is observed in the solid state for (2.08) - (2.10) and (5.07) - (5.10), including a ve ry rare S = 5/2 to 3/2 spin-crossover in complex (2.09). The unusal reduction of complex (2.10) produces a high-spin iron(I1) complex (2.12). Six iron(II) complexes that are derived from thienyl analogues of bispicen [bispicen = bis(2-pyridylmethyl)-diamine] [2,5-thienyl substituents = H- (3.11), Phenyl- (3.12), 2- thienyl (3.13) or N-phenyl-2-pyridinalimine ligands [2,5-phenyl substituents = diphenyl (3.23), di(2-thienyl) (3.24), 4-phenyl substituent = 3-thienyl (3.25)] are reported Complexes (3.11), (3.23) and (3.25) display thermal spin-crossover in the solid state and (3.12) remains high-spin at all temperatures. Complex (3.13) rearranges to form an iron(II) complex (3.14) with temperature dependent magnetic properties be s t described as a one-dimensional ferromagnetic chain, with interchain antiferromagnetic interactions and/or ZFS dominant at low temperatures. Magnetic succeptibility and Mossbauer data for complex (3.24) display a temperature dependent mixture of spin isomers. The preparation and characterization of two cobalt(II) complexes containing 3- ethynylthienyl- (4.04) and 3-ethynylterhienyl- (4.06) substituted bipyridine ligands [(4.05): [Co(dbsqh(4.04)]; (4.07): [Co(dbsq)2(4.06)]] [dbsq = 3,5-dbsq=3,5-di-tert-butylI ,2-semiquinonate] are reported. Complexes (4.05) and (4.07) exhibit thermal valence tautomerism in the solid state and in solution. Self assembly of complex (2.10) into polymeric spheres (6.11) afforded the first spincrossover, polydisperse, micro- to nanoscale material of its kind. . Complexes (2.20), (3.24) and (4.07) also form polymers through electrochemical synthesis to produce hybrid metaUopolymer films (6.12), (6.15) and (6.16), respectively. The films have been characterized by EDX, FT-IR and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Variable-temperature magnetic susceptibility measurements demonstrate that spin lability is operative in the polymers and conductivity measurements confirm the electron transport properties. Polymer (6.15) has a persistent oxidized state that shows a significant decrease in electrical resistance.

The Synthesis and Coordination Chemistry of Two Families of Polydentate Ligands - Exploring Their Potential for the Preparation of Molecule-Based Magnets

The synthesis and studies of two classes of poly dentate ligands are presented as two projects. In project 1, four new carboxamide ligands have been synthesised via the condensation of 2,2',6,6'-tetrachloroformyl-4,4'-bipyridine or 2,6-dichloroformyl pyridine together with heterocyclic amines containing pyridine or pyrazole substituents. The coordination chemistry of these ligands has been investigated and studies have shown that with a Cu(II) salt, two carboxamide ligands LJ and L2 afford large clusters with stoichiometries [Cu8(L1)4Cl16].CHCl3.5H2O.7CH3OH (I) and [Cu9(L2)6Cl6].CH3OH.5H2O.(C2H5)3N (II) respectively. [molecular diagram availabel in pdf]. X-ray diffraction studies of cluster (I) reveal that it has approximate S4 symmetry and is comprised of four ligands and eight copper (II) centers. Here, coordination takes place via amide 0 atoms, and pyrazole nitrogens. This complex is the first reported example of an octanuclear copper cluster with a saddle-shaped structure. The second cluster comprises nine copper ions that are arranged in a cyclic array. Each ligand coordinates three copper centers and each copper ion shares two ligands to connect six ligands with nine copper ions. The amide nitrogens are completely deprotonated and both amide Nand 0 atoms coordinate the metal centres. The cluster has three-fold symmetry. There are six chloride ions, three of which are bridging two neighbouring Cu(II) centres. Magnetic studies of (I) and (II) reveal that both clusters display weak antiferromagnetic interactions between neighbouring Cu(II) centers at low temperature. In the second project, three complexes with stoichiometries [Fe[N302](SCN)2]2 (III), R,R-[Fe[N3O2](SCN)2 (IV) and R,R-]Fe[N3O2](CN)2] (V) were prepared and characterized, where [N302] is a pentadentate macrocycle. Complex (III) was prepared via the metal templated Schiff-base condensation of 2,2',6,6'-tetraacetyl-4,4'-bipyridine together with 3,6-dioxaoctane-I,8-diamine and comprises of a dimeric macro cycle where the two Fe(II) centres are in a pentagonal-bipyramidal environment with the [N302] ligands occupying the equatorial plane and two axial NCS ligands. Complexes (IV) and (V) were prepared via the condensation of 2,6-diacetylpyridine together with a chiral diamine in the presence of FeCh. The synthetic strategy for the preparation of the chiral diamine (4R,5R)-4,5-diphenyl-3,6-dioxa-I,8-octane-diamine was elucidated. The chirality of both macrocycles (IV) and (V) was probed by circular dichroism spectroscopy. The crystal structure of (IV) at 200 K contains two independent molecules in the unit cell, both of which contain a hepta-coordinated Fe(II) and axial NCS ligands. Variable temperature magnetic susceptibility and structural studies are consistent with a high spin Fe(II) complex and show no evidence of any spin crossover behaviour. In contrast, the bis cyanide derivative (V) crystallizes with two independent molecules in the unit cell, both of which have different coordination geometries consistent with different spin states for the two Fe(II) centres. At 250 K, the molecular structure of (V) shows the presence of both 7- and a 6-coordinate Fe(II) complexes in the crystal lattice. As the temperature is lowered, the molecules undergo a structural change and at 100 K the structural data is consistent with a 6- and 5-coordinate Fe(II) complex in the unit cell. Magnetic studies confirm that this complex undergoes a gradual, thermal, spin crossover transition in the solid state. Photomagnetic measurements indicate this is the first chiral Fe (II) sea complex to exhibit a LIESST.