A MatLAB Based Virtual Phantom for 2D Electrical Impedance Tomography (MatVP2DEIT): Studying the Medical Electrical Impedance Tomography Reconstruction in Computer

Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) is a computerized medical imaging technique which reconstructs the electrical impedance images of a domain under test from the boundary voltage-current data measured by an EIT electronic instrumentation using an image reconstruction algorithm. Being a computed tomography technique, EIT injects a constant current to the patient's body through the surface electrodes surrounding the domain to be imaged (Omega) and tries to calculate the spatial distribution of electrical conductivity or resistivity of the closed conducting domain using the potentials developed at the domain boundary (partial derivative Omega). Practical phantoms are essentially required to study, test and calibrate a medical EIT system for certifying the system before applying it on patients for diagnostic imaging. Therefore, the EIT phantoms are essentially required to generate boundary data for studying and assessing the instrumentation and inverse solvers a in EIT. For proper assessment of an inverse solver of a 2D EIT system, a perfect 2D practical phantom is required. As the practical phantoms are the assemblies of the objects with 3D geometries, the developing of a practical 2D-phantom is a great challenge and therefore, the boundary data generated from the practical phantoms with 3D geometry are found inappropriate for assessing a 2D inverse solver. Furthermore, the boundary data errors contributed by the instrumentation are also difficult to separate from the errors developed by the 3D phantoms. Hence, the errorless boundary data are found essential to assess the inverse solver in 2D EIT. In this direction, a MatLAB-based Virtual Phantom for 2D EIT (MatVP2DEIT) is developed to generate accurate boundary data for assessing the 2D-EIT inverse solvers and the image reconstruction accuracy. MatVP2DEIT is a MatLAB-based computer program which simulates a phantom in computer and generates the boundary potential data as the outputs by using the combinations of different phantom parameters as the inputs to the program. Phantom diameter, inhomogeneity geometry (shape, size and position), number of inhomogeneities, applied current magnitude, background resistivity, inhomogeneity resistivity all are set as the phantom variables which are provided as the input parameters to the MatVP2DEIT for simulating different phantom configurations. A constant current injection is simulated at the phantom boundary with different current injection protocols and boundary potential data are calculated. Boundary data sets are generated with different phantom configurations obtained with the different combinations of the phantom variables and the resistivity images are reconstructed using EIDORS. Boundary data of the virtual phantoms, containing inhomogeneities with complex geometries, are also generated for different current injection patterns using MatVP2DEIT and the resistivity imaging is studied. The effect of regularization method on the image reconstruction is also studied with the data generated by MatVP2DEIT. Resistivity images are evaluated by studying the resistivity parameters and contrast parameters estimated from the elemental resistivity profiles of the reconstructed phantom domain. Results show that the MatVP2DEIT generates accurate boundary data for different types of single or multiple objects which are efficient and accurate enough to reconstruct the resistivity images in EIDORS. The spatial resolution studies show that, the resistivity imaging conducted with the boundary data generated by MatVP2DEIT with 2048 elements, can reconstruct two circular inhomogeneities placed with a minimum distance (boundary to boundary) of 2 mm. It is also observed that, in MatVP2DEIT with 2048 elements, the boundary data generated for a phantom with a circular inhomogeneity of a diameter less than 7% of that of the phantom domain can produce resistivity images in EIDORS with a 1968 element mesh. Results also show that the MatVP2DEIT accurately generates the boundary data for neighbouring, opposite reference and trigonometric current patterns which are very suitable for resistivity reconstruction studies. MatVP2DEIT generated data are also found suitable for studying the effect of the different regularization methods on reconstruction process. Comparing the reconstructed image with an original geometry made in MatVP2DEIT, it would be easier to study the resistivity imaging procedures as well as the inverse solver performance. Using the proposed MatVP2DEIT software with modified domains, the cross sectional anatomy of a number of body parts can be simulated in PC and the impedance image reconstruction of human anatomy can be studied.

Fruit and Seed Volatiles: Multiple Stage Settings, Actors and Props in an Evolutionary Play

Plants emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from most parts of their anatomy. Conventionally, the volatiles of leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds have been investigated separately. This review presents an integrated perspective of volatiles produced by fruits and seeds in the context of selection on the whole plant. It suggests that fruit and seed volatiles may only be understood in the light of the chemistry of the whole plant. Fleshy fruit may be viewed as an ecological arena within which several evolutionary games are being played involving fruit VOCs. Fruit odour and colour may be correlated and interact via multimodal signalling in influencing visits by frugivores. The hypothesis of volatile crypsis in the evolution of hard seeds as protection against volatile diffusion and perception by seed predators is reviewed. Current views on the role of volatiles in ant dispersal of seeds or myrmecochory are summarised, especially the suggestion that ants are being manipulated by plants in the form of a sensory trap while providing this service. Plant VOC production is presented as an emergent phenotype that could result from multiple selection pressures acting on various plant parts; the ``plant'' phenotype and VOC profile may receive significant contributions from symbionts within the plant. Viewing the plant as a holobiont would benefit an understanding of the emergent plant phenotype.

High resolution cortical bone thickness measurement from clinical CT data.

The distribution of cortical bone in the proximal femur is believed to be a critical component in determining fracture resistance. Current CT technology is limited in its ability to measure cortical thickness, especially in the sub-millimetre range which lies within the point spread function of today's clinical scanners. In this paper, we present a novel technique that is capable of producing unbiased thickness estimates down to 0.3mm. The technique relies on a mathematical model of the anatomy and the imaging system, which is fitted to the data at a large number of sites around the proximal femur, producing around 17,000 independent thickness estimates per specimen. In a series of experiments on 16 cadaveric femurs, estimation errors were measured as -0.01+/-0.58mm (mean+/-1std.dev.) for cortical thicknesses in the range 0.3-4mm. This compares with 0.25+/-0.69mm for simple thresholding and 0.90+/-0.92mm for a variant of the 50% relative threshold method. In the clinically relevant sub-millimetre range, thresholding increasingly fails to detect the cortex at all, whereas the new technique continues to perform well. The many cortical thickness estimates can be displayed as a colour map painted onto the femoral surface. Computation of the surfaces and colour maps is largely automatic, requiring around 15min on a modest laptop computer.

"Iudicium meum semper fuit" : cuestiones de poética en el comentario gramatical de Antonio de Nebrija (1444-1522)

Título del volúmen: "Elementos de retórica y poética en la gramática y el comentario filológico: de Isidoro al tiempo de Nebrija" edición de Juan Casas Rigall.

Coral Disease and Health Workshop: Coral Histopathology II

The health and continued existence of coral reef ecosystems are threatened by an increasing array of environmental and anthropogenic impacts. Coral disease is one of the prominent causes of increased mortality among reefs globally, particularly in the Caribbean. Although over 40 different coral diseases and syndromes have been reported worldwide, only a few etiological agents have been confirmed; most pathogens remain unknown and the dynamics of disease transmission, pathogenicity and mortality are not understood. Causal relationships have been documented for only a few of the coral diseases, while new syndromes continue to emerge. Extensive field observations by coral biologists have provided substantial documentation of a plethora of new pathologies, but our understanding, however, has been limited to descriptions of gross lesions with names reflecting these observations (e.g., black band, white band, dark spot). To determine etiology, we must equip coral diseases scientists with basic biomedical knowledge and specialized training in areas such as histology, cell biology and pathology. Only through combining descriptive science with mechanistic science and employing the synthesis epizootiology provides will we be able to gain insight into causation and become equipped to handle the pending crisis. One of the critical challenges faced by coral disease researchers is to establish a framework to systematically study coral pathologies drawing from the field of diagnostic medicine and pathology and using generally accepted nomenclature. This process began in April 2004, with a workshop titled Coral Disease and Health Workshop: Developing Diagnostic Criteria co-convened by the Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC), a working group organized under the auspices of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, and the International Registry for Coral Pathology (IRCP). The workshop was hosted by the U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) in Madison, Wisconsin and was focused on gross morphology and disease signs observed in the field. A resounding recommendation from the histopathologists participating in the workshop was the urgent need to develop diagnostic criteria that are suitable to move from gross observations to morphological diagnoses based on evaluation of microscopic anatomy. (PDF contains 92 pages)

The Oyster and the Oyster Industry of Maryland

Information n the life-history and management of the Oyster and Oyster Industry. Dr. Truitt has traveled and researched almost every important oyster producing Area in America. Includes semidiagramatic sketches of anatomy, information on food and feeding, respiration and circulation,valves, reproduction. Oyster production - natural beds or rocks, oyster farming, tongs and tonging, dredge. Marketing - canned, raw, shell stock. Includes bibliography. (PDF contains 47 pages)

Marine Flora and Fauna of the eastern United States: Acanthocephala

The phylum Acanthocephala (intestinal worm parasites of vertebrates) of the Atlantic coast of the United States comprises 43 species and 20 genera belonging to three orders: Echinorhynchida, Neoechinorhynchida, and Polymorphida. Adults are exclusively intestinal parasites of vertebrates. This study includes those species found in vertebrates of marine and estuarine environments along the North American Atlantic coast between Maine and Texas. Species that can be found within that geographical range and those that typically infect freshwater fishes but that are occasionally present in marine or estuarine hosts are also included. The taxonamy, anatomy, natural history, and ecology of the phylum Acanthocephala are discussed, and an illustrated key to the genera is presented. Techniques, an annotated systematic treatment of all 43 species, and a systematic index are included. No systematic decisions will be made at this time, but areas where such decisions are pending will be indicated and discussed for future reports. (PDF file contains 32 pages.)

Marine Mammal Strandings in the United States: Proceedings of the Second Marine Mammal Stranding Workshop, Miami, Florida, December 3-5, 1987

Over a decade ago, in August 1977, the First Marine Mammal Stranding Workshop was convened in Athens, Georgia. That workshop, organized by j.R. Geraci and D.J. St. Aubin, not only considered biology and pathology of stranded marine mammals, but it also served as a springboard for the formation of regional marine mammal stranding networks in the United States. The ramifications have been extremely important to the field of marine mammalogy since, for some species, examination or rehabilitation of stranded specimens serves as virtually the only source of information on distribution, anatomy, physiology, reproduction, and pathology. The First Marine Mammal Stranding Workshop led to increased awareness of the marine mammals themselves, as well as the logistic and legal factors associated with effective handling of the animals. A number of individuals indicated that they felt that a Second Marine Mammal Stranding Workshop held prior to the Seventh Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals (Miami, Florida; December 1987) would be both timely and productive. Accordingly, we organized the workshop and scheduled it to occur on 3-5 December. Our goals for the workshop were several, including 1) providing descriptions of some research, especially new techniques, regarding stranded marine mammals; 2) providing a forum where scientists could interact and possibly initiate cooperative research activities; 3) presenting information regarding procedures used effectively to handle stranded animals; 4) assessing ways to standardize data and specimen collection, archiving, and retrieval; and 5) providing a forum for assessing accomplishments and status of regional stranding networks to date, as well as for making recommendations regarding future activities of the networks. Nearly 100 individuals representing Federal and State governments, academic institutions, the oceanarium industry, consulting groups, conservation organizations, and the private sector attended the workshop (see Workshop Participants, this volume). (PDF file contains 166 pages.)

The intestine as a diagnostic character in identifying certain clupeoids (Engraulididae, Clupeidae, Dussumieriidae) and as a morphometric character for comparing anchoveta (Centengraulis mysticetus) populations

ENGLISH: The several species of clupeoid fishes used as baitfish in the Eastern Pacific tuna fishery are, in some cases, sufficiently similar to make identification difficult. During a review of the anatomy of the intestine of clupeoid fishes it was observed that the morphology of the intestine is sometimes a useful character in the identification of systematic groups. The genera at least can be distinguished by means of the topographical anatomy of the intestines. This also may be a useful character because it is often found that a species occurs in the same area as another species that may be confused with it on external inspection, although it belongs to a different genus. SPANISH: La gran similitud morfológica de varias especies del órden Clupeoidea usadas como cebo en la pesquería de atún del Pacifíco Oriental, hace que su identificación sea en algunos casos difícil. Al realizar una revisión anatómica del intestino de los peces clupeoides, se observó que la morfología del mismo es a veces un carácter útil para la identificación de los diversos grupos sistemáticos. Al menos los géneros pueden ser distinguidos por medio de la anatomía topográfica de los intestinos. Esto también puede ser un carácter útil, puesto que a menudo dos especies pertenecientes a géneros diferentes y que ocupen la misma área, pueden ser confundidos si nos basamos solamente en la morfología externa. (PDF contains 24 pages.)

A model of the olfactory bulb and beyond

The olfactory bulb of mammals aids in the discrimination of odors. A mathematical model based on the bulbar anatomy and electrophysiology is described. Simulations of the highly non-linear model produce a 35-60 Hz modulated activity, which is coherent across the bulb. The decision states (for the odor information) in this system can be thought of as stable cycles, rather than as point stable states typical of simpler neuro-computing models. Analysis shows that a group of coupled non-linear oscillators are responsible for the oscillatory activities. The output oscillation pattern of the bulb is determined by the odor input. The model provides a framework in which to understand the transformation between odor input and bulbar output to the olfactory cortex. This model can also be extended to other brain areas such as the hippocampus, thalamus, and neocortex, which show oscillatory neural activities. There is significant correspondence between the model behavior and observed electrophysiology.

It has also been suggested that the olfactory bulb, the first processing center after the sensory cells in the olfactory pathway, plays a role in olfactory adaptation, odor sensitivity enhancement by motivation, and other olfactory psychophysical phenomena. The input from the higher olfactory centers to the inhibitory cells in the bulb are shown to be able to modulate the response, and thus the sensitivity, of the bulb to odor input. It follows that the bulb can decrease its sensitivity to a pre-existing and detected odor (adaptation) while remaining sensitive to new odors, or can increase its sensitivity to discover interesting new odors. Other olfactory psychophysical phenomena such as cross-adaptation are also discussed.

Dinâmica de crescimento de Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) na Floresta Atlântica do Estado do Rio de Janeiro: fenologia, atividade cambial e dendrocronologia

Ao longo do século XX, poucos estudos de dendrocronologia foram desenvolvidos com espécies de ambientes tropicais, em função da crença de que as condições climáticas nessas regiões não apresentavam variações suficientemente marcantes e regulares para induzir um ritmo anual de crescimento radial. A realização de trabalhos sobre esse tema nas últimas décadas revelou que a formação de anéis de crescimento anuais nos trópicos pode estar associada a fatores diversos, como: existência de estação seca bem definida, ocorrência de inundações sazonais, respostas ao comportamento fenológico, respostas ao fotoperíodo e a ritmos endógenos. O presente estudo tem por objetivo compreender a dinâmica de crescimento radial de uma espécie da Mata Atlântica se desenvolvendo em ambiente natural. Para tanto, propôs-se: i) investigar a periodicidade da atividade cambial e dos fatores que a influenciam; ii) estimar a idade e taxa de crescimento diamétrico e iii) correlacionar os fatores ambientais com os anéis de crescimento, em indivíduos de Cedrela odorata L. Para o estudo da atividade cambial, foram obtidas amostras de caule a 1,30 m do solo, contendo periderme, faixa cambial e xilema e floema secundários, por métodos não destrutivos. A fenologia vegetativa e a frutificação dos indivíduos amostrados foram acompanhadas durante todo o período do experimento. O material coletado foi processado segundo técnicas usuais em Anatomia Vegetal e analisado sob microscopia óptica e de fluorescência. Os dados de fotoperíodo, precipitação, temperatura e fenologia vegetativa foram correlacionados à atividade cambial. Para o estudo dos anéis de crescimento, as coletas também foram realizadas a 1,30 m do solo, por meio de sonda de Pressler. As amostras obtidas foram polidas e analisadas sob microscópio estereoscópio, para demarcação e aferição do número de anéis de crescimento, e a largura dos anéis foi mensurada para a determinação das taxas de crescimento radial. A série histórica de temperatura e precipitação foi correlacionada à cronologia dos anéis de crescimento. Os resultados indicaram que a atividade cambial segue um ritmo anual de crescimento, correlacionado à sazonalidade do fotoperíodo, da precipitação e da fenologia vegetativa. A análise dos anéis de crescimento permitiu estimar a idade dos indivíduos e determinar a taxa média de incremento e as taxas de incremento diamétrico acumulado e incremento médio anual para a espécie no sítio de estudo. Os dados de incremento radial evidenciaram a ausência de relação entre a idade e o diâmetro das árvores. A análise da variação na largura dos anéis não apresentou correlações significativas com os fatores climáticos analisados.

Eggs, Larvae and Young of The Striped Bass, Roccus saxatilis

Detailed descriptions of the early development of the striped bass, Roccus saxitilis (Walbaum), with emphasis on variation in size and morphology, sequence of fin formation, changes in body form, and attainment of the full complement of maristic numbers, are presented and illustrated for the first time. The egg is spherical, transparent, non-adhesive and relatively large. It is pelagic and buoyant, although it sinks in quiet fresh water. When unfertilized, it averages 1.3 mm, in diameter, but is 3.4 mm. when fertilized and water-hardened. The granular yolk sac, green when alive and whitish-yellow when preserved, averages 1.2 mm., and the single amber-colored oil globule is about 0.6 mm. in diameter. Newly hatched striped bass prolarvae, which range from 2.9-3.7 mm. in total length, are relatively undeveloped and nearly transparent, with no mouth opening, unpigmented eyes, and a greatly enlarged yolk sac with the large oil globule projecting beyond the head. When 5-6 mm. long the yolk sac and oil globule are assimilated and the postlarvae I show advanced development of the internal anatomy. Although the fish is still transparent, scattered melanophores are found on the head and body and chromatophores in the eyes and the ventro-posterior edge of the body. Postlarvae transform to young between 7 and 10 mm. in length when the finfolds are lost except in the dorsal, anal and caudal regions. The largest fish in this group possess a well-formed skeleton with a full complement of 25 vertebrae. Between 10 and 20 mm. in length all fish are fully transformed, muscular tissue renders most of the internal structure obscure, and the myotomes, which generally correspond in number with the vertebrae, are no longer visible. At fish lengths of 20-30 mm. scales are found on all specimens, and with the exception of the pectoral fin-rays, a full complement of meristic structures is present in all other fins. At this stage the body is pigmented uniformly with small spots. Linear regressions between several dependent variables and the , independent variable of standard length indicate that the rate of development of head, eye. and snout to anus lengths is proportional to the length of the larvae and young. Body depth and standard length are non-linear among newly-hatched larvae. Hatchery-reared striped bass demonstrated a slow rate of growth, and were regarded as "stunted," when compared to growth rates observed in another study and field collections. Observations were also made on abnormal eggs and teratological larvae and young. Blue-sac disease is tentatively identified and described for the first time in larvae and pugnosed larvae and young are also described for the first time in striped bass.

Revisão anatômica e posicionamento filogenético das espécies de Ionoscopiformes (Actinopterygii: Holostei) do Cretáceo do nordeste do Brasil e de Puebla, México

Os gêneros de peixes fósseis Oshunia e Placidichthys são holósteos pertencentes à Ordem Ionoscopiformes e provenientes do Cretáceo Inferior do Brasil, das bacias do Araripe e de Tucano. No clado Ionoscopiformes sensu Grande & Bemis (1998) estão incluídas as famílias Ionoscopidae e Ophiopsidae, todavia as relações internas deste grupo ainda são duvidosas. Oshunia e Placidichthys fazem parte das famílias Ionoscopidae e Ophiopsidae, respectivamente, sendo o gênero Oshunia considerado como mono-específico (cf., O. brevis), enquanto que Placidichthys apresenta duas espécies nominais (cf., P. bidorsalis e P. tucanensis). Em função destas espécies terem sido descritas a partir de poucos espécimes, ainda existiam várias lacunas no conhecimento em relação as mesmas, como, por exemplo, a possibilidade da existência de outras espécies no gênero Oshunia e a falta de informações anatômicas, especialmente do crânio, da região occipital, dos ossos da face e da nadadeira caudal das espécies de Placidichthys. Outro ponto em aberto na literatura era a posição filogenética dos dois gêneros. Frente a estas questões, o objetivo da presente dissertação foi realizar uma revisão anatômica dos gêneros Oshunia e Placidichthys, a fim de ampliar o conhecimento anatômico e taxonômico acerca dos mesmos, além realizar uma análise filogenética da Ordem Ionoscopiformes, baseada em matrizes de caracteres existentes na literatura, para se obter um melhor posicionamento dessas espécies brasileiras. Em função da facilidade de acesso a material mexicano, também foram incluídos nesta revisão os gêneros Teoichthys e Tuetzalichthys provenientes do Cretáceo da Formação Tlayúa, estes também peixes fósseis holósteos pertencentes à Ordem Ionoscopiformes. Do ponto de vista taxonômico, não foi possível confirmar a existência de novas espécies para o gênero Oshunia, entretanto ficou clara a presença de uma nova espécie pertencente ao gênero mexicano Teoichthys. A presente revisão proporcionou uma série de novas informações sobre a anatomia destas espécies de Ionoscopiformes, tais como a descrição dos ossos circumorbitais e do teto craniano e uma reinterpretação acerca da nadadeira dorsal de Placidichthys bidorsalis, ou ainda sobre a forma do rostral de Teoichthys kallistos. Da mesma maneira, esta revisão também ofereceu novos dados para a construção de uma nova hipótese filogenética para Ionoscopiformes, a qual se mostrou consideravelmente distinta das hipóteses filogenéticas anteriores (cf., relações internas de Ionoscopidae e o posicionamento do gênero Teoichthys). O baixo suporte para grande parte dos clados torna evidente a fragilidade das hipóteses de relacionamento interno do clado Ionoscopiformes, bem como a necessidade de uma revisão mais aprofundada das outras espécies deste grupo e dos caracteres a serem utilizados em futuras análises filogenéticas.

Retenção em canais amplos de núcleos confeccionados por diferentes técnicas com pinos fibro resinosos

O propósito desse trabalho foi verificar a retenção de pinos fibro resinosos cimentados em canais radiculares alargados simulando raízes extensamente comprometidas, fabricados por duas técnicas usadas para diminuir sua desadaptação; comparando-as ao pino fixado somente com cimento. Foram utilizados vinte e quatro raízes de dentes humanos unirradiculares, padronizadas com 15.0 mm de comprimento e 5.0 0.3 mm de diâmetro. As raízes foram incluídas em resina acrílica e divididas em grupos de acordo com a técnica usada: grupo I - pino DC White Post no2 cimentado com sistema adesivo quimicamente ativado e com cimento resinoso dual; grupo II mesmo pino reanatomizado com resina composta para copiar a anatomia do canal radicular, cimentado da mesma forma; e grupo III mesmo pino associado a três pinos acessórios, cimentados do mesmo modo. O canal radicular teve seu diâmetro padronizado pela broca no2 para o pino DC em uma profundidade de 12.0 mm e alargado com uma broca tronco cônica em uma profundidade de 10.0 mm. As oito raízes de cada grupo foram seccionadas transversalmente em três discos de 3.0 mm, a partir da cervical para a execução de um ensaio de extrusão, descartando-se os últimos 2.0 mm, que serviram somente para centralizar o pino. Os valores de retenção foram registrados e tratados estatisticamente por ANOVA e pelo teste SNK (p<0.05). Diferenças significativas foram observadas entre três porções radiculares investigadas em todos os grupos, com os valores de retenção diminuindo da cervical para apical. A retenção na porção apical do grupo com pinos customizado com resina foi estatisticamente maior que na mesma região dos demais grupos. Nenhuma diferença foi encontrada entre o grupo com pinos acessórios e o grupo somente com pino e cimento nessa parte da raiz. Nenhuma diferença foi observada comparando as porções cervical e média dos diferentes grupos. Os tipos de falha após o teste de extrusão foram observados em microscópio eletrônico de varredura com aumento de 200, 600 e 1000 vezes. Elas ocorreram exclusivamente entre o pino e o cimento ou a resina composta. A camada de adesão (camada híbrida) foi mais facilmente observada nas porções cervical e média de todos os grupos. Isso sugere que a retenção nas porções apicais da raiz é predominantemente friccional. Uma vez que pinos acessórios somente alcançam até a porção média do canal radicular, a retenção do pino não é aumentada com essa técnica.

Relações filogenéticas dos tubarões-martelo (Elasmobranchii: Sphyrnidae) com ênfase em morfologia

A cabeça lateralmente expandida é a principal sinapomorfia da família Sphyrnidae, a qual compreende todos os tubarões-martelo. Apesar de haver trabalhos abordando esta família, sua anatomia interna tem sido negligenciada como fonte de caracteres para serem utilizados na taxonomia e filogenia dos Sphyrnidae, em especial acerca de seu cefalofólio. Além disso, outros caracteres permanecem pouco estudados na família, tais como os referentes à anatomia dentária, dentículos dérmicos e sistema de poros sensoriais do cefalofólio. As relações filogenéticas entre os Sphyrnidae, e desta família entre os demais Carcharhiniformes, ainda é controversa como sua taxonomia. As poucas hipóteses filogenéticas conhecidas, baseadas em morfologia, não foram testadas sob critérios sistemáticos. Já as poucas hipóteses moleculares existentes foram testadas mas são ainda mais controversas. O presente estudo apresenta uma revisão anatômica e taxonômica dos Sphyrnidae, construindo uma matriz de caracteres mais robusta para testar as relações filogenéticas entre os Sphyrnidae, contando com 3 gêneros relacionados no grupo externo: Carcharhinus, Rhizoprionodon e Negaprion. Os resultados posicionam S. tiburo na base da família, e E. blochii e S. tudes compondo um dos clados mais derivados. Espécies de maior porte e cefalofólio mais expandido compõem um clado formado por S. mokarran + (S. lewini + S. zygaena), ao passo que as de menor porte e com cefalofolio mais arredondado formam um grupo polifilético. Rhizoprionodon acutus aparece como monofilético à família Sphyrnidae quando incluído fora do grupo externo. As árvores de consenso (Strictus, Semi-strictus, Majority-rule e Adams) apresentam os mesmos resultados. Os caracteres cranianos, sensoriais e de dentículo dérmico são os que mais suportaram os diversos clados. Após a revisão taxonômica da família, a filogenia com base em morfologia apresentou-se mais consistente e clara, embora controversa aos dados moleculares.