Alkaline and acid phosphatases of the silkworm, Bombyx mori L.

The variations in the activities of the alkaline and acid phosphatases of the silkworm, Bombyx mori, were studied in all stages of the life cycle. From hatching until the spinning stage a steady increase was recorded in the activity of both the enzymes followed with a conspicuous decrease at each moult. During the pupal stage the alkaline phosphatase was almost absent, whereas the acid phosphatase maintained a high and constant value. Increase or decrease of the activity of the enzymes during larval development was reflected in a decrease or increase in the acid-soluble phosphorus content. Acid phosphatase activity slowly increased from laying of the eggs to hatching of the larvae with a concomitant decrease in the acid-soluble phosphorus. Tissue analysis showed a high concentration of the alkaline enzyme in the intestines, but the haemolymph was almost free of both enzymes. Feeding of inorganic phosphate increased the alkaline enzyme in the intestines, whereas glucose had no effect on either of the enzymes in the intestines.

Multi-criteria seismic hazard evaluation for Bangalore city, India

Different seismic hazard components pertaining to Bangalore city,namely soil overburden thickness, effective shear-wave velocity, factor of safety against liquefaction potential, peak ground acceleration at the seismic bedrock, site response in terms of amplification factor, and the predominant frequency, has been individually evaluated. The overburden thickness distribution, predominantly in the range of 5-10 m in the city, has been estimated through a sub-surface model from geotechnical bore-log data. The effective shear-wave velocity distribution, established through Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Wave (MASW) survey and subsequent data interpretation through dispersion analysis, exhibits site class D (180-360 m/s), site class C (360-760 m/s), and site class B (760-1500 m/s) in compliance to the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) nomenclature. The peak ground acceleration has been estimated through deterministic approach, based on the maximum credible earthquake of M-W = 5.1 assumed to be nucleating from the closest active seismic source (Mandya-Channapatna-Bangalore Lineament). The 1-D site response factor, computed at each borehole through geotechnical analysis across the study region, is seen to be ranging from around amplification of one to as high as four times. Correspondingly, the predominant frequency estimated from the Fourier spectrum is found to be predominantly in range of 3.5-5.0 Hz. The soil liquefaction hazard assessment has been estimated in terms of factor of safety against liquefaction potential using standard penetration test data and the underlying soil properties that indicates 90% of the study region to be non-liquefiable. The spatial distributions of the different hazard entities are placed on a GIS platform and subsequently, integrated through analytical hierarchal process. The accomplished deterministic hazard map shows high hazard coverage in the western areas. The microzonation, thus, achieved is envisaged as a first-cut assessment of the site specific hazard in laying out a framework for higher order seismic microzonation as well as a useful decision support tool in overall land-use planning, and hazard management. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Complement factor H dysfunction in atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome

Alternative pathway (AP) of complement can be activated on any surface, self or non-self. In atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS) the AP regulation on self surfaces is insufficient and leads to complement attack against self-cells resulting usually in end-stage renal disease. Factor H (FH) is one of the key regulators of AP activation on the self surfaces. The domains 19 and 20 (FH19-20) are critical for the ability of FH to discriminate between C3b-opsonized self and non-self surfaces and are a hot-spot for mutations that have been described from aHUS patients. FH19-20 contains binding sites for both the C3d part of C3b and self surface polyanions that are needed for efficient C3b inactivation. To study the dysfunction of FH19-20, crystallographic structures of FH19-20 and FH19-20 in complex with C3d (FH19-20:C3d) were solved and aHUS-associated and structurally interesting point mutations were induced to FH19-20. Functional defects caused by these mutations were studied by analyzing binding of the FH19-20 mutant proteins to C3d, C3b, heparin, and mouse glomerular endothelial cells (mGEnCs). The results revealed two independent binding interfaces between FH19-20 and C3d - the FH19 site and the FH20 site. Superimposition of the FH19-20:C3d complex on the previously published C3b and FH1-4:C3b structures showed that the FH20 site on C3d is partially occluded, but the FH19 site is fully available. Furthermore, binding of FH19-20 via the FH19 site to C3b did not block binding of the functionally important FH1-4 domains and kept the FH20 site free to bind heparin or an additional C3d. Binding assays were used to show that FH20 domain can bind to heparin while FH19-20 is bound to C3b via the FH19 site, and that both the FH19 site and FH20 are necessary for recognition of non-activator surfaces. Simultaneous binding of FH19 site to C3b and FH20 to anionic self structures are the key interactions in self-surface recognition by FH and thereby enhanced avidity of FH explains how AP discriminates between self and non-self. The aHUS-associated mutations on FH19-20 were found to disrupt binding of the FH19 or FH20 site to C3d/C3b, or to disrupt binding of FH20 to heparin or mGEnC. Any of these dysfunctions leads to loss of FH avidity to C3b bearing self surfaces explaining the molecular pathogenesis of the aHUS-cases where mutations are found within FH19-20.

Separation Of Beta-Apocarotenals And Related Compounds By Reversed-Phase Paper And Thin-Layer Chromatography

Tlie sclxuntion and clraractcrization of vitamins Al and An nnd related compoundsby reversed-pllasc paper cliromatogrnpl~y as well as ly thin-lqxr chromategraphy have hen rcportccl carlicrl * $. Thin-lnycr chromatography has also been used for the separatinn and charncterizatio11 of carotenoids from natural sourccs3~ ‘1. I-Iowcver, 130tr.rc,1~1~ofib scrvccl that carotenoid misturcs cannot be separated on a sin& aclsorhnt with ;1 sin& solvent. The scparntion and clctermi1wtion of carotenoid alclclydes from plants, microorganisms and animnl tissues have lxxn carriecl out by nicans of thin-layer clirf.~li~ato~apI~~U. Apocarotcnals awl apocarotcnoic acid have been detected in ornnges by the same technique’*

Jäsenten kokema edistyminen peliongelmasta toipumisessaan kolmessa virtuaalisessa Pelivoimapiiri-vertaistukiryhmässä

Tässä tapaustutkimuksessa on seurattu kolmen virtuaalisen Pelivoimapiiri-vertaistukiryhmän (PVP) ryhmäprosessien lisäksi ryhmien aktiivisimpien jäsenten toipumista sekä heidän kokemiaan hyötyjä eri PVP-ryhmissä ja eri ryhmätoiminnan vaiheissa. Aiempia tutkimuksia, jotka olisivat perustuneet samankaltaiseen tutkimusasetelmaan, ei aineistohaussa löytynyt. Aineistona tutkimuksessa on käytetty jäsenten palveluun lähettämiä ryhmätekstiviestejä. Menetelmiä ovat sisällön erittely sekä teoriaohjaava sisällönanalyysi. Ryhmiä seuraamalla ja niitä toisiinsa vertaamalla on selvitetty, missä ryhmätoiminnan vaiheissa jäsenet ilmaisevat tyytyväisyyttään PVP-palvelua sekä oman ryhmänsä toimintaa kohtaan. Jotta PVP:ssä koettu hyöty olisi eroteltavissa muusta haetusta avusta, on myös tulkittu viestejä, joissa tästä muun avun hakemisesta puhutaan. On myös huomioitu aikaperspektiivi ja tulkittu, kannustavatko ryhmät muun avun hakemiseen ja missä ryhmätoiminnan vaiheessa muuta apua haetaan. Yksilötason sisällönanalyysi on toteutettu seuraamalla aktiivisten jäsenten viestejä ryhmätoiminnan alusta sen loppuun saakka. Viesteistä on tunnistettu jäsenten edistymistä niin Prochaskan ja DiClementen transteoreettisen muutosvaihemallin avulla kuin myös soveltamalla tutkijoiden luokitteluja siitä, miten virtuaalinen ryhmätuki voi edesauttaa yksilön toipumista. Tarkastelen, ovatko PVP-ryhmät edistäneet yksilöiden toipumista tutkijoiden määrittelemien teoreettisten mallien mukaisesti. Tulokset vahvistivat aiempia löydöksiä, joiden mukaan viestintä virtuaaliryhmissä keskittyy pääasiassa muutamalle aktiiviselle jäsenelle. Ryhmien aktiivisten vaiheiden pituudet vaihtelivat aktiivisimman ryhmän kahden–kolmen kuukauden elinkaaresta epäaktiivisimman ryhmän pariin viikkoon. Aktiivisessa vaiheessa jäsenet olivat tyytyväisimpiä palveluun, kokivat hyötyneensä palvelusta eniten ja he olivat optimistisimpia omasta toipumisestaan. Jäsenet olivat ohjattua ryhmää lukuun ottamatta suurin piirtein samalla lähtötasolla ja he olivat ryhmän alussa pääasiassa akuutissa pelaamisvaiheessa. Nopea ryhmän kokoaminen ja jäsenten samalla muutosvaiheen lähtötasolla oleminen edistivät aktiivista ryhmäkeskustelua. Seurantajäsenistä suurin osa edistyi PVP:hen osallistumisen aikana, ja monet kokivat PVP:n myötävaikuttaneen edistymiseensä. Viisi seurantajäsentä yhdeksästä ei pelannut lainkaan PVP:hen osallistumisen aikana. Kuitenkaan ei ole selvästi eroteltavissa, mikä on lopulta palvelun ansio, sillä myös muita apukeinoja käytettiin runsaasti. Aktiivisimmassa ryhmässä jäsenet raportoivat eniten muun avun hakemisesta, kehuivat eniten ryhmäänsä, ilmaisivat rakentavimmin kritiikkiä sekä olivat huolestuneimpia ryhmän aktiivisuuden laskusta. Edellä mainittu viittaa siihen, että aktiivisimman ryhmän jäsenet kokivat muihin ryhmiin verrattuna suurempaa koheesiota. Näyttäisi siltä, että ainakin tämän tyyppinen virtuaaliryhmätuki voi – monesta syystä johtuen – tarjota vain melko lyhytaikaista tukea. Moni jäsen kuitenkin kokee, varsinkin palvelun alussa, hyötyneensä tuesta. Vaikka ryhmässä tapahtuvat prosessit ovat pitkälti ennustamattomia, voitaneen virtuaaliryhmien toimintaa kuitenkin monella tavalla edistää. Tämän selvittäminen vaatii lisätutkimuksia. Tapaustutkimukselle ominaiseen tapaan tuloksista on johdettu useita kehitysehdotuksia palvelun ylläpitäjille sekä pohdittu virtuaalisten vertaistukiryhmien sovellusmahdollisuuksia tulevaisuudessa sekä kvalitatiivisen arviointitutkimuksen mahdollisuuksia.

Karyotype instability in the ponerine ant genus Diacamma

The queenless ponerine ant Diacamma ceylonense and a population of Diacamma from the Nilgiri hills which we refer to as `nilgiri', exhibit interesting similarities as well as dissimilarities. Molecular phylogenetic study of these morphologically almost similar taxa has shown that D ceylonense is closely related to `nilgiri' and indicates that `nilgiri' is a recent diversion in the Diacamma phylogenetic tree. However, there is a striking behavioural difference in the way reproductive monopoly is maintained by the respective gamergates (mated egg laying workers), and there is evidence that they are genetically differentiated, suggesting a lack of gene flow To develop a better understanding of the mechanism involved in speciation of Diacamma, we have analysed karyotypes of D. ceylonense and `nilgiri' In both, we found surprising inter-individual and intra-individual karyotypic mosaicism. The observed numerical variability, both at intra-individual and inter-individual levels, does not appear to have hampered the sustainability of the chromosomal diversity in each population under study Since the related D. indicum, displays no such intra-individual or inter-Individual variability whatsoever under identical experimental conditions, these results are unlikely to he artifacts. Although no known mechanisms can account for the observed karyotypic variability of this nature, we believe that the present findings on the ants under study would provide opportunities for exciting new discoveries concerning the origin, maintenance and significance of intra-individual and inter-individual karyotypic mosaicism.

Paikallisradiot suomalaisen viestintäpolitiikan kiistana

Valtioneuvosto myönsi tammikuussa 1985 32 kokeilutoimilupaa paikallisradioyhtiöille. Tämä oli tärkeä periaatteellinen mullistus suomalaisessa viestintäpolitiikassa. Ennemmin ääniradiotoiminta oli ollut tiukasti Yleisradion monopoli. Paikallisradioista käydyn keskustelun aloitti kesällä 1983 Paikallislehtien liitto julkaisemalla aikeensa perustaa paikallisradioyhtiöitä. Myöhemmin kesällä paikallislehdet yhdessä joidenkin elinkeinoelämän järjestöjen kanssa perustivat paikallisradioliiton ajamaan asiaansa. Asia oli ajankohtainen, sillä vuonna 1979 asetettu Juhani Perttusen radio- ja televisiokomitea laati juuri viimeistä mietintöään yleisradiotoiminnan järjestämisestä. Mietintö valmistui tammikuussa 1984, ja siinä suhtauduttiin varauksellisen myönteisesti paikallisradiokokeilun aloittamiseen. Paikallisradiokokeilun toteuttamistavasta ja toimilupien saajista käytiin kuitenkin vielä vuoden ajan poliittista vääntöä, kunnes tammikuussa 1985 valtioneuvosto myönsi kaksivuotiset kokeilutoimiluvat. Tämän tutkimuksen pääkohteena on paikallisradioista vuosina 1983-1985 käyty keskustelu. Tarkastelen viestintäpolitiikkaa kuitenkin pitkän aikavälin näkökulmasta, aina 1960-luvun loppupuolelta saakka. Puolueista keskityn tutkimuksessani Keskustapuolueeseen ja SDP:hen. Tämä siksi, että ne olivat päähallituspuolueet paikallisradioista päätettäessä. Lisäksi noiden puolueiden viestintäpolitiikan muutos 1970-luvulta lähtien oli keskeinen viestinnän deregulaation takana vaikuttanut voima. Muitten puolueitten viestintäpolitiikka pysyi samansuuntaisena, oikeisto kannatti deregulaatiota ja vasemmisto – SKDL – vastusti sitä. Keskustapuolueen ja SDP:n lisäksi tarkastelen Paikallisradioliiton kampanjointia. Tutkimukseni tavoitteena on ymmärtää sitä yhteiskunnallista, poliittista ja kulttuurista prosessia, joka johti viestinnän aseman uudelleenmäärittelyyn suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa ja politiikassa. Näkökulmani viestintäpolitiikan tarkasteluun pitkällä aikavälillä on kulttuurin murroksen näkökulma. Teesini on, että 1970-luvun lopulla alkanut viestinnän deregulaatio oli osa laajempaa kulttuurista muutosta, johon on yleisesti viitattu postmodernin tai jälkiteollisen ajan alkamisena. Monopolistinen, kansansivistysmallinen radio oli osa modernia, valistusoptimistista yhteiskuntaa ja se joutui kriisiin modernin metanarratiivien legitimaatiopohjan murentuessa. Kulttuurin murrokseen liittyi myös suunnitteluoptimismin murentuminen ja yksilöllistyminen, jotka vähensivät kansansivistysradion aikaan sopivuutta. Tutkimuksessa selvitän deregulaation poliittisen prosessin kulkua, mutta pääpainoni on siinä, miten viestintäpolitiikkaa legitimoitiin ja millaiset merkitysrakenteet sitä määrittivät. Tutkimusotteeni on diskurssianalyyttinen, sen kohteena on viestintäpoliittinen tulkinta ja kulttuuri merkitysrakenteina. Tutkimustehtävänäni on myös selvittää sopiiko deregulaatioprosessi Taisto Hujasen teesiin viestinnän demokratisoinnista tai Pentti Kemppaisen malliin konsensusdemokraattisesta prosessista, joka heijasti uusliberaalia aikakautta. Tutkimustulokseni on, että viestinnän demokratisoinnin ideat näyttelivät kyllä osaa keskustelussa, mutta niillä lähinnä kammettiin taloudellinen logiikka sisään radiotoimintaan, mikä ei olisi muuten ollut perusteltavissa. Konsensusmalli sopii huonosti kuvaaman deregulaation prosessia, viestintäpolitiikka oli tuona aikana hyvin erimielistä. Tosin viestintäpoliittisten kannanottojen voi nähdä jossain määrin maltillistuneen ja liberalisoituneen 1970-luvun informaatiosodista. Taloudellinen logiikka näytteli vähäistä roolia toimiluvista päättäneiden ajattelussa. Tärkeimpinä lähdeaineistoina ovat toimineet Keskustapuolueen ja SDP:n arkistot. Lisäksi olen käyttänyt lähteinä puolueiden lehdistöä ja Paikallisradioliiton julkaisemaa Paikallisradio-lehteä.

Rigid and flexible region in lysozyme and the invariant features in its hydration shell

Water-mediated transformations provide a useful handle for exploring the flexibility in protein molecules and the invariant features in their hydration shells. Low-humidity monoclinic hen egg white lysozyme, resulting from such a transformation, has perhaps the lowest solvent content observed in any protein crystal so far and has a well-ordered structure. A detailed comparison involving this structure, low-humidity tetragonal lysozyme, and the other available refined crystal structures of the enzyme permits the delineation of the relatively rigid, moderately flexible and highly flexible regions of the molecule. The relatively rigid region forms a contiguous structural unit close to the molecular centroid and encompasses parts of of the main beta-structure and three alpha-helices. The hydration shell of the protein contains 30 invariant water molecules. Many of them are involved in holding different parts of the molecule together or in stabilizing local structure. Five of the six invariant water molecules attached to the substrate-binding region form part of a water cluster contiguous with the side-chains of the catalytic residues Glu-35 and Asp-52.

The role of larval nutrition in pre-imaginal biasing of caste in the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

1. When freshly eclosed females of the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata (Lep.) are isolated, only about 50% of them build nests and lay eggs thereby suggesting a pre-imaginal biasing of caste. 2. Wasps that lay eggs take a very variable amount of time after eclosion to start doing so. 3. Females eclosing from nests where larvae are fed at a relatively higher rate are more likely to become egg-layers and are likely to take less time after eclosion to begin to lay eggs. 4. Thus, both forms of pre-imaginal biasing of caste, namely, differences in egg laying capacity and differences in the time taken to attain reproductive maturity, appear to be influenced by larval nutrition.

Selective-Area Atomic Layer Deposition

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a method to deposit thin films from gaseous precursors to the substrate layer-by-layer so that the film thickness can be tailored with atomic layer accuracy. Film tailoring is even further emphasized with selective-area ALD which enables the film growth to be controlled also on the substrate surface. Selective-area ALD allows the decrease of a process steps in preparing thin film devices. This can be of a great technological importance when the ALD films become into wider use in different applications. Selective-area ALD can be achieved by passivation or activation of a surface. In this work ALD growth was prevented by octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane and 1-dodecanethiol SAMs, and by PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) and PVP (poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) polymer films. SAMs were prepared from vapor phase and by microcontact printing, and polymer films were spin coated. Microcontact printing created patterned SAMs at once. The SAMs prepared from vapor phase and the polymer mask layers were patterned by UV lithography or lift-off process so that after preparation of a continuous mask layer selected areas of them were removed. On these areas the ALD film was deposited selectively. SAMs and polymer films prevented the growth in several ALD processes such as iridium, ruthenium, platinum, TiO2 and polyimide so that the ALD films did grow only on areas without SAM or polymer mask layer. PMMA and PVP films also protected the surface against Al2O3 and ZrO2 growth. Activation of the surface for ALD of ruthenium was achieved by preparing a RuOX layer by microcontact printing. At low temperatures the RuCp2-O2 process nucleated only on this oxidative activation layer but not on bare silicon.

Trade Blocs and the Cold War : The CMEA and the EC challenge, 1969-1976

The coherence of the Soviet bloc was seriously tested at the turn of the 1970s, as the Soviet Union and its allies engaged in intensive negotiations over their relations with the European Communities (EC). In an effort to secure their own national economic interests many East European countries began independent manoeuvres against the wishes of their bloc leader. However, much of the intra-bloc controversy was kept out of the public eye, as the battle largely took place behind the scenes, within the organisation for economic cooperation, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The CMEA policy-making process vis-à-vis the EC is described in this study with reference to primary archival materials. This study investigates the negotiating positions and powers of the CMEA member states in their efforts to deal with the economic challenge created by the progress of the EC, as it advanced towards the customs union. This entails an analysis of the functioning principles and performance of the CMEA machinery. The study traces the CMEA negotiations that began in 1970 over its policy toward the EC. The policy was finally adopted in 1974, and was followed by the first official meeting between the two organisations in early 1975. The story ends in 1976, when the CMEA s efforts to enter into working relations with the EC were seemingly frustrated by the latter. The first major finding of the study is that, contrary to much of the prior research, the Soviet Union was not in a hegemonic position vis-à-vis its allies. It had to use a lot of its resources to tame the independent manoeuvring of its smaller allies. Thus, the USSR was not the kind of bloc leader that the totalitarian literature has described. Because the Soviet Union had to spend so much attention on its own bloc-politics, it was not able to concentrate on formulating a policy vis-à-vis the EC. Thus, the Soviet leadership was dependent on its allies in those instances when the socialist countries needed to act as a bloc. This consequently opened up the possibility for the USSR s allies to manoeuvre. This study also argues that when the CMEA did manage to find a united position, it was a force that the EC had to reckon with in its policy-making. This was particularly the case in the implementation of the EC Common Commercial Policy. The other main finding of the study is that, although it has been largely neglected in the previous literature on the history of West European integration, the CMEA did in fact have an effect on EC decision-making. This study shows how for political and ideological reasons the CMEA members did not acknowledge the EC s supranational authority. Therefore the EC had no choice but to refrain from implementing its Common Commercial Policy in full.

Magnetization properties of some quantum spin ladders

The experimental realization of various spin ladder systems has prompted their detailed theoretical investigations. Hen we study the evolution of ground-state magnetization with an external magnetic field for two different antiferromagnetic systems: a three-legged spin-1/2 ladder, and a two-legged spin-1/2 ladder with an additional diagonal interaction. The finite system density-matrix renormalization-group method is employed for numerical studies of the three-chain system, and an effective low-energy Hamiltonian is used in the limit of strong interchain coupling to study the two- and three-chain systems. The three-chain system has a magnetization plateau at one-third of the saturation magnetization. The two-chain system has a plateau at zero magnetization due to a gap above the singlet ground state. It also has a plateau at half of the saturation magnetization for a certain range of values of the couplings. We study the regions of transitions between plateaus numerically and analytically, and find that they are described, at first order in a strong-coupling expansion, by an XXZ spin-1/2 chain in a magnetic field; the second-order terms give corrections to the XXZ model, We also study numerically some low-temperature properties of the three-chain system, such as the magnetization, magnetic susceptibility and specific heat. [S0163-1829(99)303001-5].

Lysozyme: A model protein for amyloid research

Ever since lysozyme was discovered by Fleming in 1922, this protein has emerged as a model for investigations on protein structure and function. Over the years, several high-resolution structures have yielded a wealth of structural data on this protein. Extensive studies on folding of lysozyme have shown how different regions of this protein dynamically interact with one another. Data is also available from numerous biotechnological studies wherein lysozyme has been employed as a model protein for recovering active recombinant protein from inclusion bodies using small molecules like L-arginine. A variety of conditions have been developed in vitro to induce fibrillation in hen lysozyme. They include (a) acidic pH at elevated temperature, (b) concentrated solutions of ethanol, (c) moderate concentrations of guanidinium hydrochloride at moderate temperature, and (d) alkaline pH at room temperature. This review aims to bring together similarities and differences in aggregation mechanisms, morphology of aggregates, and related issues that arise using the different conditions mentioned above to improve our understanding. The alkaline pH condition (pH 12.2), discovered and studied extensively in our lab, shall receive special attention. More than a decade ago, it was revealed that mutations in human lysozyme can cause accumulation of large quantities of amyloid in liver, kidney, and other regions of gastrointestinal tract. Understanding the mechanism of lysozyme aggregation will probably have therapeutic implications for the treatment of systemic nonneuropathic amyloidosis. Numerous studies have begun to focus attention on inhibition of lysozyme aggregation using antibody or small molecules. The enzymatic activity of lysozyme presents a convenient handle to quantify the native population of lysozyme in a sample where aggregation has been inhibited. The rich information available on lysozyme coupled with the multiple conditions that have been successful in inducing/inhibiting its aggregation in vitro makes lysozyme an ideal model protein to investigate amyloidogenesis.

Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas

The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon(1-3). With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses(4-9). As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world's major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve `health': about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.

Reproductive queue without overt conflict in the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata

Colonies of the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia marginata consist of a single egg layer (queen) and a number of non-egg-laying workers. Although the queen is a docile individual, not at the top of the behavioral dominance hierarchy of the colony, she maintains complete reproductive monopoly. If the queen is lost or removed, one and only one of the workers potential queen (PQ)] becomes hyperaggressive and will become the next queen of the colony. The PQ is almost never challenged because she first becomes hyperaggressive and then gradually loses her aggression, develops her ovaries, and starts laying eggs. Although we are unable to identify the PQ when the queen is present, she appears to be a ``cryptic heir designate.'' Here, we show that there is not just one heir designate but a long reproductive queue and that PQs take over the role of egg-laying, successively, without overt conflict, as the queen or previous PQs are removed. The dominance rank of an individual is not a significant predictor of its position in the succession hierarchy. The age of an individual is a significant predictor, but it is not a perfect predictor because PQs often bypass older individuals to become successors. We suggest that such a predesignated reproductive queue that is implemented without overt conflict is adaptive in the tropics, where conspecific usurpers from outside the colony, which can take advantage of the anarchy prevailing in a queenless colony and invade it, are likely to be present throughout the year.