FRUGIVORY OF NEOSILBA SPECIES (DIPTERA: LONCHAEIDAE) AND THEPYTUS ECHELTA (LEPIDOPTERA: LYCAENIDAE) ON PSITTACANTHUS (SANTALALES: LORANTHACEAE) IN ECOTONAL CERRADO-SOUTH PANTANAL, BRAZIL

This paper presents a survey of the insects that feed on fruits of Psittacanthus Martius (Santalales: Loranthaceae), a hemiparasitic mistletoe genus that infects trees in Brazil and other neotropical countries. The aim of the study was to identify candidate insects for biological control of Psittacanthus mistletoes. Unripe and mature fruits were collected in several localities of Cerrado, bordering South Pantanal, Southwestern Brazil, from 29 Apr 1998 to 30 Jul 2000. A total of 24,710 fruits (54 samples) of Psittacanthus acinarius infecting 15 species from 10 plant families were evaluated. Psittacanthus acinarius (Mart.) was the most abundant and frequent species of mistletoe parasitizing trees in the ecotonal Cerrado-Pantanal. From 24,710 fruits of Psittacanthus acinarius were obtained 1,812 insect larvae including 1,806 Neosilba McAlpine (Diptera: Lonchaeidae) species and 6 Thepytus echelta (Hewitson) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). From these emerged 1,550 Neosilba spp. adults and 6 T. echelta. Neosilba pantanense Strikis was described from this research. Larvae of T. echelta occurred in fruits of P. acinarius parasitizing Cecropia pachystachya Trecul (Urticaceae) and Anadenanthera colubrina (Vellozo) Brenan (Fabaceae). Larvae of Neosilba caused no adverse effects on the germination of infected fruits of Psittacanthus, because they do not eat the embryo or viscin tissues. This differs from the larvae of T. echelta that interrupted the germination of seeds by feeding on those tissues. Thepytus echelta may be a promising insect for the biological control of P. acinarius in the ecotonal Cerrado-Pantanal, although its abundance and frequency were low throughout the sampling period.

Composition and Seasonal Variation of Brachyura and Anomura (Crustacea, Decapoda) Associated with Brown Mussel Farms at Praia da Cocanha, Brazil

The composition and seasonal variation of brachyuran and anomuran species associated with mussel farms were evaluated at Praia da Cocanha, Sao Paulo between May 2007 and February 2008. Nine mussel ropes were sampled at random in each quarter, and 1,208 organisms were identified, comprising five families and 28 species. The most numerous species was the porcellanid Pachycheles laevidactylus (18.5%), followed by the xanthids Acantholobulus schmitti (16.6%), Hexapanopeus paulensis (11.3%), Panopeus americanus (10.2%), and Menippe nodifrons (8.4%). The exotic crab Charybdis hellerii was recorded throughout the study period. The ecological descriptors, except Pielou evenness index, varied significantly over the time. The highest abundance and diversity of the species were recorded during November and February. This pattern was reversed for Berger-Parker dominance, with the lowest values recorded in February. The development of epifauna was correlated with the different stages of the mussel farms, since the mean size of mussels and consequently the abundance of epibiotic organisms and the structural complexity on the mussel ropes increased from May (seeding) until February (harvest). Despite this, the temporal population variations in recruitment patterns of the different epibionts should not be overlooked. The results indicated that the mussel farms provided favorable conditions for the development of these crustacean groups, which could be used in environmental monitoring programs and / or be exploited for the aquarium trade.

Multiple invasions of Gypsy and Micropia retroelements in genus Zaprionus and melanogaster subgroup of the genus Drosophila

Abstract Background The Zaprionus genus shares evolutionary features with the melanogaster subgroup, such as space and time of origin. Although little information about the transposable element content in the Zaprionus genus had been accumulated, some of their elements appear to be more closely related with those of the melanogaster subgroup, indicating that these two groups of species were involved in horizontal transfer events during their evolution. Among these elements, the Gypsy and the Micropia retroelements were chosen for screening in seven species of the two Zaprionus subgenera, Anaprionus and Zaprionus. Results Screening allowed the identification of diverse Gypsy and Micropia retroelements only in species of the Zaprionus subgenus, showing that they are transcriptionally active in the sampled species. The sequences of each retroelement were closely related to those of the melanogaster species subgroup, and the most parsimonious hypothesis would be that 15 horizontal transfer events shaped their evolution. The Gypsy retroelement of the melanogaster subgroup probably invaded the Zaprionus genomes about 11 MYA. In contrast, the Micropia retroelement may have been introduced into the Zaprionus subgenus and the melanogaster subgroup from an unknown donor more recently (~3 MYA). Conclusion Gypsy and Micropia of Zaprionus and melanogaster species share similar evolutionary patterns. The sharing of evolutionary, ecological and ethological features probably allowed these species to pass through a permissive period of transposable element invasion, explaining the proposed waves of horizontal transfers.

Natural infection in anopheline species and its implications for autochthonous malaria in the Atlantic forest in Brazil

Abstract Background A descriptive study was carried out in an area of the Atlantic Forest with autochthonous malaria in the Parelheiros subdistrict on the periphery of the municipality of São Paulo to identify anopheline fauna and anophelines naturally infected with Plasmodium as well as to discuss their role in this peculiar epidemiological context. Methods Entomological captures were made from May 2009 to April 2011 using Shannon traps and automatic CDC traps in four areas chosen for their different patterns of human presence and incidences of malaria (anthropic zone 1, anthropic zone 2, transition zone and sylvatic zone). Natural Plasmodium infection was detected by nested PCR based on amplification of the 18S rRNA gene. Results In total, 6,073 anophelines were collected from May 2009 to April 2011, and six species were identified in the four zones. Anopheles cruzii was the predominant species in the three environments but was more abundant in the sylvatic zone. Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii specimens from the anthropic and sylvatic zones were positive for P. vivax and P. malariae. An. (Ker.) bellator, An. (Nys.) triannulatus, An. (Nys.) strodei, An. (Nys.) lutzi and An. (Ano) maculipes were found in small numbers. Of these, An. (Nys.) triannulatus and An. (Nys.) lutzi, which were collected in the anthropic zone, were naturally infected with P. vivax while An. (Nys.) triannulatus from the anthropic zones and An. (Nys.) strodei from the transition zone were positive for P. malariae. Conclusion These results confirm that Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii plays an important role as a major Plasmodium vector. However, the finding of other naturally infected species may indicate that secondary vectors are also involved in the transmission of malaria in the study areas. These findings can be expected to help in the implementation of new measures to control autochthonous malaria in areas of the Atlantic Forest.

A new species and redescriptions of three species of Atractosomus Lacordaire from Brazil (Elateridae, Elaterinae)

A new species, Atractosomus amazonicus sp. nov. is described and three species, A. robustus Candèze, 1859, A. carinatus Candèze, 1859 and A. conicicollis Candèze, 1859 are redescribed and illustrated. A comparison among these species and with the type-species, A. flavescens (Germar 1839) is presented. A.amazonicus sp. nov. and A. robustus belong to group of species with 3rd and 4th antennomeres equal in size and the other studied species, to group with 3rd antennomere smaller than 4th.

Evaluation of impacts of climate change and local stressors on the biotechnological potential of marine macroalgae: a brief theoretical discussion of likely scenarios

Climate change can be associated with variations in the frequency and intensity of extreme temperatures and precipitation events on the local and regional scales. Along coastal areas, flooding associated with increased occupation has seriously impacted products and services generated by marine life, in particular the biotechnological potential that macroalgae hold. Therefore, this paper analyzes the available information on the taxonomy, ecology and physiology of macroalgae and discusses the impacts of climate change and local stress on the biotechnological potential of Brazilian macroalgae. Based on data compiled from a series of floristic and ecological works, we note the disappearance in some Brazilian regions of major groups of biotechnological interest. In some cases, the introduction of exotic species has been documented, as well as expansion of the distribution range of economically important species. We also verify an increase in the similarities between the Brazilian phycogeographic provinces, although they still remain different. It is possible that these changes have resulted from the warming of South Atlantic water, as observed for its surface in southeastern Brazilian, mainly during the winter. However, unplanned urbanization of coastal areas can also produce similar biodiversity losses, which requires efforts to generate long-term temporal data on the composition, community structure and physiology of macroalgae.

Composition and seasonal variation of brachyura and anomura (Crustacea, Decapoda) associated with brown mussel farms at Praia da Cocanha, Brazil

The composition and seasonal variation of brachyuran and anomuran species associated with mussel farms were evaluated at Praia da Cocanha, São Paulo between May 2007 and February 2008. Nine mussel ropes were sampled at random in each quarter, and 1,208 organisms were identified, comprising five families and 28 species. The most numerous species was the porcellanid Pachycheles laevidactylus (18.5%), followed by the xanthids Acantholobulus schmitti (16.6%), Hexapanopeus paulensis (11.3%), Panopeus americanus (10.2%), and Menippe nodifrons (8.4%). The exotic crab Charybdis hellerii was recorded throughout the study period. The ecological descriptors, except Pielou evenness index, varied significantly over the time. The highest abundance and diversity of the species were recorded during November and February. This pattern was reversed for Berger-Parker dominance, with the lowest values recorded in February. The development of epifauna was correlated with the different stages of the mussel farms, since the mean size of mussels and consequently the abundance of epibiotic organisms and the structural complexity on the mussel ropes increased from May (seeding) until February (harvest). Despite this, the temporal population variations in recruitment patterns of the different epibionts should not be overlooked. The results indicated that the mussel farms provided favorable conditions for the development of these crustacean groups, which could be used in environmental monitoring programs and / or be exploited for the aquarium trade.

Invasion of the dinoflagellate Ceratium furcoides (Levander) Langhans 1925 at tropical reservoir and its relation to environmental variables

Dinoflagellates of the genus Ceratium are chiefly marine but there are rare occurrences in freshwater. In this study we analyze the invasion and progressive establishment of Ceratium furcoides, an exotic species, in the Furnas Reservoir. Samples were taken at 36 points in the reservoir, during the months of March, June, September and December, 2007. Measurements of some physical and chemical variables were simultaneously performed at each site. The occurrence of C. furcoides was registered at 20 sites, with densities varying between 0.57 and 28,564,913.0 ind.m-3. Blooms of this species were recorded in points which were classified as mesotrophic, coinciding with the places receiving high amounts of untreated domestic sewage. C. furcoides density was correlated with temperature, nutrients (nitrate and nitrite) and water electric conductivity. The highest density was recorded in June when temperature was low. The presence of Ceratium furcoides in the reservoir apparently has not yet affected the reservoir water quality or other plankton communities. However, if it becomes fully established it could perhaps become a problem in the reservoir or even to spread out to other reservoirs in Rio Grande basin.

Development of a multi-species method by GC-coupling with inductively coupled plasma isotope dilution mass spectrometry for the simultaneous determination of alkylated lead, mercury and tin compounds

An accurate and sensitive species-specific GC-ICP-IDMS (gas chromatography inductively coupled plasma isotope dilution mass spectrometry) method for the determination of trimethyllead and a multi-species-specific GC-ICP-IDMS method for the simultaneous determination of trimethyllead, methylmercury, and butyltins in biological and environmental samples were developed. They allow the determination of corresponding elemental species down to the low ng g-1 range. The developed synthesis scheme for the formation of isotopically labeled Me3206Pb+ can be used for future production of this spike. The novel extraction technique, stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), was applied for the first time in connection with species-specific isotope dilution GC-ICP-MS for the determination of trimethyllead, methylmercury and butyltins. The results were compared with liquid-liquid extraction. The developed methods were validated by the analysis of certified reference materials. The liquid-liquid extraction GC-ICP-IDMS method was applied to seafood samples purchased from a supermarket. The methylated lead fraction in these samples, correlated to total lead, varied in a broad range of 0.01-7.6 %. On the contrary, the fraction of methylmercury is much higher, normally in the range of 80-98 %. The highest methylmercury content of up to 12 µg g-1 has been determined in shark samples, an animal which is at the end of the marine food chain, whereas in other seafood samples a MeHg+ content of less than 0.2 µg g-1 was found. Butyltin species could only be determined in samples, where anthropogenic contaminations must be assumed. This explains the observed broad variation of the butylated tin fraction in the range of <0.3-49 % in different seafood samples. Because all isotope-labelled spike compounds, except trimethyllead, are commercially available, the developed multi-species-specific GC-ICP-IDMS method has a high potential in future for routine analysis.

Influence of habitat and climate change on European bird communities

Die Fragmentierung von Waldgebieten, der Verlust geeigneter Habitate, die Invasion exotischer Arten und globale Klimaveränderung haben auf Artengemeinschaften erhebliche Auswirkungen. Vögel dienen in vielen Fällen als Indikatorarten für Umweltveränderungen und, besonders, für Veränderungen im Zusammenhang mit globaler Erwärmung. In meiner Arbeit habe ich zuerst einen Literaturüberblick über die Auswirkungen globaler Klimaveränderung auf die Verbreitungsgebiete, den Artenreichtum und die Zusammensetzung von Vogelgemeinschaften dargestellt. Zahlreiche Untersuchungen zeigen, daß die Grenzen der Verbreitungsgebiete der meisten Vogelarten mit klimatischen Faktoren korrelieren. Verschiebungen der Verbreitungsgebiete in nördliche Richtung oder in höhere Regionen im Gebirge konnten bereits für viele temperate Vogelarten beobachtet werden. Weiterhin wurde ein zunehmender Artenreichtum besonders in nördlichen Breiten und in höheren Lagen für viele temperate Vogelgemeinschaften vorhergesagt. In trockenen Gebieten ist dagegen mit einer Abnahme des Artenreichtums zu rechnen. Im zweiten Teil meiner Arbeit habe ich untersucht, ob beobachtete Veränderungen in der Zusammensetzung europäischer Vogelgemeinschaften tatsächlich durch aktuelle Klimaveränderungen beeinflußt werden. Das Zugverhalten der Arten war dabei ein Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung, weil zu erwarten war, daß Vogelarten mit verschiedenem Zugverhalten unterschiedlich auf Klimaveränderungen reagieren. Ich habe ein Regressionsmodell genutzt, welches die räumliche Beziehung zwischen dem Anteil von Langstreckenziehern, Kurzstreckenziehern und Standvögeln in europäischen Vogelgemeinschaften und verschiedenen Klimavariablen beschreibt. Für 21 Gebiete in Europa habe ich Daten über beobachtete Veränderungen in der Struktur der Vogelgemeinschaften und isochrone Klimaveränderungen zusammengetragen. Mit Hilfe dieser Klimaveränderungen und dem räumlichen Regressionsmodell konnte ich berechnen, welche Veränderungen in den Vogelgemeinschaften aufgrund der veränderten Klimabedingungen zu erwarten wären und sie mit beobachteten Veränderungen vergleichen. Beobachtete und berechnete Veränderungen korrelierten signifikant miteinander. Die beobachteten Veränderungen konnten nicht durch räumliche Autokorrelationseffekte oder durch alternative Faktoren, wie z.B. Veränderungen in der Landnutzung, erklärt werden. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit untersuchte ich für eine mitteleuropäische Vogelgemeinschaft welchen Einfluß Habitatveränderungen, die Invasion exotischer Arten und die Klimaveränderung auf Veränderungen der Häufigkeit und Verbreitungsgröße der 159 Vogelarten am Bodensee zwischen 1980-1981 und 2000-2002 hatten. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, daß Veränderungen in der regionalen Abundanz sowohl durch Habitatveränderungen als auch durch Klimavänderungen hervorgerufen wurden. Exotische Arten schienen in dieser Zeit keinen bedeutenden Einfluß zu haben. Besonders bei Agrarlandarten, Arten mit nördlicheren Verbreitungsgebieten und bei Langstreckenziehern konnten signifikante Abnahmen in der Abundanz beobachtet werden. Vor allem die anhaltenden negativen Bestandsveränderungen bei Langstreckenziehern und die in den letzten zehn Jahren aufgetretenen Abnahmen nördlicher verbreiteter Vogelarten deuten darauf hin, daß die Klimaveränderung aktuell als der größte Einfluß für Vögel in Europa angesehen werden muß. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit, daß sich der anhaltende Druck auf die Umwelt in erster Linie durch Habitat- und Klimaveränderungen manifestiert.

Continuous geochemical monitoring by mass-spectometer in the Campi Flegrei geothermal area. An application at Pisciarelli-Solfatara (diffuse and fumarolic gases) and at the mud gases during drilling of the CFDDP pilot hole

During this work has been developed an innovative methodology for continuous and in situ gas monitoring (24/24 h) of fumarolic and soil diffusive emissions applied to the geothermal and volcanic area of Pisciarelli near Agnano inside the Campi Flegrei caldera (CFc). In literature there are only scattered and in discrete data of the geochemical gas composition of fumarole at Campi Flegrei; it is only since the early ’80 that exist a systematic record of fumaroles with discrete sampling at Solfatara (Bocca Grande and Bocca Nuova fumaroles) and since 1999, even at the degassing areas of Pisciarelli. This type of sampling has resulted in a time series of geochemical analysis with discontinuous periods of time set (in average 2-3 measurements per month) completely inadequate for the purposes of Civil Defence in such high volcanic risk and densely populated areas. For this purpose, and to remedy this lack of data, during this study was introduced a new methodology of continuous and in situ sampling able to continuously detect data related and from its soil diffusive degassing. Due to its high sampling density (about one measurement per minute therefore producing 1440 data daily) and numerous species detected (CO2, Ar, 36Ar, CH4, He, H2S, N2, O2) allowing a good statistic record and the reconstruction of the gas composition evolution of the investigated area. This methodology is based on continuous sampling of fumaroles gases and soil degassing using an extraction line, which after undergoing a series of condensation processes of the water vapour content - better described hereinafter - is analyzed through using a quadrupole mass spectrometer

Food safety and zoonotic enteric pathogens: sources, risk factors and transmission routes of human salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis

Salmonella and Campylobacter are common causes of human gastroenteritis. Their epidemiology is complex and a multi-tiered approach to control is needed, taking into account the different reservoirs, pathways and risk factors. In this thesis, trends in human gastroenteritis and food-borne outbreak notifications in Italy were explored. Moreover, the improved sensitivity of two recently-implemented regional surveillance systems in Lombardy and Piedmont was evidenced, providing a basis for improving notification at the national level. Trends in human Salmonella serovars were explored: serovars Enteritidis and Infantis decreased, Typhimurium remained stable and 4,[5],12:i:-, Derby and Napoli increased, suggesting that sources of infection have changed over time. Attribution analysis identified pigs as the main source of human salmonellosis in Italy, accounting for 43–60% of infections, followed by Gallus gallus (18–34%). Attributions to pigs and Gallus gallus showed increasing and decreasing trends, respectively. Potential bias and sampling issues related to the use of non-local/non-recent multilocus sequence typing (MLST) data in Campylobacter jejuni/coli source attribution using the Asymmetric Island (AI) model were investigated. As MLST data become increasingly dissimilar with increasing geographical/temporal distance, attributions to sources not sampled close to human cases can be underestimated. A combined case-control and source attribution analysis was developed to investigate risk factors for human Campylobacter jejuni/coli infection of chicken, ruminant, environmental, pet and exotic origin in The Netherlands. Most infections (~87%) were attributed to chicken and cattle. Individuals infected from different reservoirs had different associated risk factors: chicken consumption increased the risk for chicken-attributed infections; animal contact, barbecuing, tripe consumption, and never/seldom chicken consumption increased that for ruminant-attributed infections; game consumption and attending swimming pools increased that for environment-attributed infections; and dog ownership increased that for environment- and pet-attributed infections. Person-to-person contacts around holiday periods were risk factors for infections with exotic strains, putatively introduced by returning travellers.

Capacità di sviluppo di Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Leconte su ospiti alternativi al mais

Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) è una specie esotica invasiva di origine centro americana e introdotta in Europa agli inizi degli anni ’90, in Italia nel 1998. Considerata negli Stati Uniti la principale avversità del mais (Zea mais L.), è oggi presente in quasi tutti i Paesi europei dove è presente tale coltura. Poiché il mais risulta l’ospite prioritario di Diabrotica, attualmente il principale metodo di contenimento consiste nella rotazione con una coltura non ospite. L’obiettivo del lavoro è stato quello di indagare sulle piante ospiti alternative al mais nel nostro ambiente, accertando il ruolo che possono avere le infestanti o altre Poaceae coltivate nella biologia della Diabrotica. Tali essenze sono state scelte tra specie mai sottoposte a sperimentazione e tra quelli già oggetto di indagini, ma su cui si sono ottenuti esiti discordi o non soddisfacenti. Sono state allestite prove con infestazione artificiale in ambiente controllato e prove in campo per valutare la sopravvivenza larvale e il completamento del ciclo, nonché le prestazioni biologiche degli individui ottenuti. Le ricerche hanno permesso di osservare sopravvivenza di Diabrotica su numerose graminacee, in particolare cereali. Tale capacità è confermata dalla presenza di larve di diversa età e in alcuni casi di pupe sulle specie ospiti alternative, sia con infestazione artificiale che in campo. Tuttavia crescita e sviluppo su queste piante sono stati più lenti del mais e gli stadi giovanili trovati hanno mostrato caratteristiche morfometriche inferiori rispetto a quelli del mais. Adulti non sono mai stati raccolti in campo, mentre questo si è verificato in condizioni controllate. Le specie che meritano maggior attenzione sono i cereali Triticum spelta e Panicum miliaceum e l’infestante Sorghum halepense. Si potrebbe dunque ipotizzare che alcune specie vegetali possano fungere da ospite secondario quando non è presente il mais riducendo l’efficacia dell’avvicendamento.

Spins, moments and radii of cd isotopes

The complex nature of the nucleon-nucleon interaction and the wide range of systems covered by the roughly 3000 known nuclides leads to a multitude of effects observed in nuclear structure. Among the most prominent ones is the occurence of shell closures at so-called ”magic numbers”, which are explained by the nuclear shell model. Although the shell model already is on duty for several decades, it is still constantly extended and improved. For this process of extension, fine adjustment and verification, it is important to have experimental data of nuclear properties, especially at crucial points like in the vicinity of shell closures. This is the motivation for the work performed in this thesis: the measurement and analysis of nuclear ground state properties of the isotopic chain of 100−130Cd by collinear laser spectroscopy.rnrnThe experiment was conducted at ISOLDE/CERN using the collinear laser spectroscopy apparatus COLLAPS. This experiment is the continuation of a run on neutral atomic cadmium from A = 106 to A = 126 and extends the measured isotopes to even more exotic species. The required gain in sensitivity is mainly achieved by using a radiofrequency cooler and buncher for background reduction and by using the strong 5s 2S1/2 → 5p 2P3/2 transition in singly ionized Cd. The latter requires a continuous wave laser system with a wavelength of 214.6 nm, which has been developed during this thesis. Fourth harmonic generation of an infrared titanium sapphire laser is achieved by two subsequent cavity-enhanced second harmonic generations, leading to the production of deep-UV laser light up to about 100 mW.rnrnThe acquired data of the Z = 48 Cd isotopes, having one proton pair less than the Z = 50 shell closure at tin, covers the isotopes from N = 52 up to N = 82 and therefore almost the complete region between the neutron shell closures N = 50 and N = 82. The isotope shifts and the hyperfine structures of these isotopes have been recorded and the magnetic dipole moments, the electric quadrupole moments, spins and changes in mean square charge radii are extracted. The obtained data reveal among other features an extremely linear behaviour of the quadrupole moments of the I = 11/2− isomeric states and a parabolic development in differences in mean square nuclear charge radii between ground and isomeric state. The development of charge radii between the shell closures is smooth, exposes a regular odd-even staggering and can be described and interpreted in the model of Zamick and Thalmi.

The interface between morphology and action planning: a comparison of two species of New World monkeys

Recent research with several species of nonhuman primates suggests sophisticated motor-planning abilities observed in human adults may be ubiquitous among primates. However, there is considerable variability in the extent to which these abilities are expressed across primate species. In the present experiment, we explore whether the variability in the expression of anticipatory motor-planning abilities may be attributed to cognitive differences (such as tool use abilities) or whether they may be due to the consequences of morphological differences (such as being able to deploy a precision grasp). We compared two species of New World monkeys that differ in their tool use abilities and manual dexterity: squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus (less dexterous with little evidence for tool use) and tufted capuchins, Sapajus apella (more dexterous and known tool users). The monkeys were presented with baited cups in an untrained food extraction task. Consistent with the morphological constraint hypothesis, squirrel monkeys frequently showed second-order motor planning by inverting their grasp when picking up an inverted cup, while capuchins frequently deployed canonical upright grasping postures. Findings suggest that the lack of ability for precision grasping may elicit more consistent second-order motor planning, as the squirrel monkeys (and other species that have shown a high rate of second-order planning) have fewer means of compensating for inefficient initial postures. Thus, the interface between morphology and motor planning likely represents an important factor for understanding both the ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins of sophisticated motor-planning abilities.