Overtraining is associated with DNA damage in blood and skeletal muscle cells of Swiss mice

Abstract: Background: The alkaline version of the single-cell gel (comet) assay is a useful method for quantifying DNA damage. Although some studies on chronic and acute effects of exercise on DNA damage measured by the comet assay have been performed, it is unknown if an aerobic training protocol with intensity, volume, and load clearly defined will improve performance without leading to peripheral blood cell DNA damage. In addition, the effects of overtraining on DNA damage are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of aerobic training and overtraining on DNA damage in peripheral blood and skeletal muscle cells in Swiss mice. To examine possible changes in these parameters with oxidative stress, we measured reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in total blood, and GSH levels and lipid peroxidation in muscle samples. Results: Performance evaluations (i.e., incremental load and exhaustive tests) showed significant intra and inter-group differences. The overtrained (OTR) group showed a significant increase in the percentage of DNA in the tail compared with the control (C) and trained (TR) groups. GSH levels were significantly lower in the OTR group than in the C and TR groups. The OTR group had significantly higher lipid peroxidation levels compared with the C and TR groups. Conclusions Aerobic and anaerobic performance parameters can be improved in training at maximal lactate steady state during 8 weeks without leading to DNA damage in peripheral blood and skeletal muscle cells or to oxidative stress in skeletal muscle cells. However, overtraining induced by downhill running training sessions is associated with DNA damage in peripheral blood and skeletal muscle cells, and with oxidative stress in skeletal muscle cells and total blood.

Estradiol induces transcriptional and posttranscriptional modifications in versican expression in the mouse uterus

We have previously shown the differential expression of versican in the mouse uterus under ovarian hormone influence. We also demonstrated there is not a direct correlation between mRNA levels and protein expression, suggesting posttranscriptional events, such as alteration in mRNA stability. This posttranscriptional effect may result in the elongation and stabilization of transcripts poly(A) tail. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze whether estradiol (E2) regulates versican mRNA stability and expression in a dose-related and time-dependent manner. For this purpose female mice were ovariectomized and treated with a single injection of 0.1 or 10 μg E2. To block transcription a group of females received a single injection of alpha-amanitin before hormone administration. Uterine tissues were collected 30 min, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h after treatments and processed for quantitative real time PCR (qPCR), RACE-PAT Assay and immunohistochemistry. qPCR showed that versican mRNA levels are higher than control from 3 to 24 h after E2 administration, whereas after transcription inhibition versican mRNA unexpectedly increases within 3 h, which can be explained when transcriptional blockers alter the degradation rate of the transcript, resulting in the superinduction of this mRNA. Accordingly, analysis of versican transcript poly(A) tail evidenced a longer product 3 h after treatment, but not after 12 h. Versican immunoreaction becomes conspicuous in the superficial stroma only 3 h after E2 injection, whereas the whole stroma is immunoreactive from 6 h onward. These results demonstrate that E2 modulates versican at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels in a time-dependent manner.

Long-term type 1 diabetes impairs decidualization and extracellular matrix remodeling during early embryonic development in mice

Introduction: Endometrial decidualization and associated extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling are critical events to the establishment of the maternal-fetal interface and successful pregnancy. Here, we investigated the impact of type 1 diabetes on these processes during early embryonic development, in order to contribute to the understanding of the maternal factors associated to diabetic embryopathies. Methods: Alloxan-induced diabetic Swiss female mice were bred after different periods of time to determine the effects of diabetes progression on the development of gestational complications. Furthermore, the analyses focused on decidual development as well as mRNA expression, protein deposition and ultrastructural organization of decidual ECM. Results: Decreased number of implantation sites and decidual dimensions were observed in the group mated 90-110 days after diabetes induction (D), but not in the 50-70D group. Picrosirius staining showed augmentation in the fibrillar collagen network in the 90e110D group and, following immunohistochemical examination, that this was associated with increase in types I and V collagens and decrease in type III collagen and collagen-associated proteoglycans biglycan and lumican. qPCR, however, demonstrated that only type I collagen mRNA levels were increased in the diabetic group. Alterations in the molecular ratio among distinct collagen types and proteoglycans were associated with abnormal collagen fibrillogenesis, analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. Conclusions: Our results support the concept that the development of pregnancy complications is directly related with duration of diabetes (progression of the disease), and that this is a consequence of both systemic factors (i.e. disturbed maternal endocrine-metabolic profile) and uterine factors, including impaired decidualization and ECM remodeling

Intravital microscopy technique to study parasite dynamics in the labyrinth layer of the mouse placenta

Intravital imaging techniques are the best approach to investigate in situ cellular behavior under physiological conditions. Many techniques have emerged during these last few years for this purpose. We recently described an intravital imaging technique that allows for the observation of placenta physiological responses at the labyrinth layer of this tissue. This technique will be very useful to study many placental opportunistic infections and in this article we reinforce its usefulness by analyzing placental physiological entrapment of beads and parasites. In particular, our results show that small beads (1.0 μm) or Plasmodium chabaudi-GFP-infected-Red Blood Cells (Pc-GFP-iRBCs) cannot get trapped inside small or large blood vessels of popliteal lymph nodes (PLNs). Inside the placenta, clusters of beads could only be found inside the maternal blood vessels. However, Pc-GFP-iRBCs were found inside and outside the maternal blood vessels. We observed that trophoblasts can ingest infected-Red Blood Cells (iRBCs) in vitro and immunofluorescence of placenta revealed Pc-GFP-iRBCs inside and outside the maternal blood vessels. Taken together, we conclude that fast deposition of particles inside blood vessels seems to be an intrinsic characteristic of placenta blood flow, but iRBCs could be internalized by trophoblast cells. Thus these results represent one of the many possible uses of our intravital imaging technique to address important questions inside the parasitological field.

Comparative genomic sequencing analysis of a region in human chromosome 11p15.3, mouse chromosome 7 and analysis of the novel STK33, Stk33 gene

The comparative genomic sequence analysis of a region in human chromosome 11p15.3 and its homologous segment in mouse chromosome 7 between ST5 and LMO1 genes has been performed. 158,201 bases were sequenced in the mouse and compared with the syntenic region in human, partially available in the public databases. The analysed region exhibits the typical eukaryotic genomic structure and compared with the close neighbouring regions, strikingly reflexes the mosaic pattern distribution of (G+C) and repeats content despites its relative short size. Within this region the novel gene STK33 was discovered (Stk33 in the mouse), that codes for a serine/threonine kinase. The finding of this gene constitutes an excellent example of the strength of the comparative sequencing approach. Poor gene-predictions in the mouse genomic sequence were corrected and improved by the comparison with the unordered data from the human genomic sequence publicly available. Phylogenetical analysis suggests that STK33 belongs to the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases group and seems to be a novelty in the chordate lineage. The gene, as a whole, seems to evolve under purifying selection whereas some regions appear to be under strong positive selection. Both human and mouse versions of serine/threonine kinase 33, consists of seventeen exons highly conserved in the coding regions, particularly in those coding for the core protein kinase domain. Also the exon/intron structure in the coding regions of the gene is conserved between human and mouse. The existence and functionality of the gene is supported by the presence of entries in the EST databases and was in vivo fully confirmed by isolating specific transcripts from human uterus total RNA and from several mouse tissues. Strong evidence for alternative splicing was found, which may result in tissue-specific starting points of transcription and in some extent, different protein N-termini. RT-PCR and hybridisation experiments suggest that STK33/Stk33 is differentially expressed in a few tissues and in relative low levels. STK33 has been shown to be reproducibly down-regulated in tumor tissues, particularly in ovarian tumors. RNA in-situ hybridisation experiments using mouse Stk33-specific probes showed expression in dividing cells from lung and germinal epithelium and possibly also in macrophages from kidney and lungs. Preliminary experimentation with antibodies designed in this work, performed in parallel to the preparation of this manuscript, seems to confirm this expression pattern. The fact that the chromosomal region 11p15 in which STK33 is located may be associated with several human diseases including tumor development, suggest further investigation is necessary to establish the role of STK33 in human health.

Use of VEGFR-2 targeted microbubbles (BR55, Bracco imaging) for the early ultrasound evaluation of response to antiangiogenic treatment in a xenograft model of hepatocarcinoma

Aim: To evaluate the early response to treatment to an antiangiogenetic drug (sorafenib) in a heterotopic murine model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using ultrasonographic molecular imaging. Material and Methods: the xenographt model was established injecting a suspension of HuH7 cells subcutaneously in 19 nude mice. When tumors reached a mean diameter of 5-10 mm, they were divided in two groups (treatment and vehicle). The treatment group received sorafenib (62 mg/kg) by daily oral gavage for 14 days. Molecular imaging was performed using contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), by injecting into the mouse venous circulation a suspension of VEGFR-2 targeted microbubbles (BR55, kind gift of Bracco Swiss, Geneve, Switzerland). Video clips were acquired for 6 minutes, then microbubbles (MBs) were destroyed by a high mechanical index (MI) impulse, and another minute was recorded to evaluate residual circulating MBs. The US protocol was repeated at day 0,+2,+4,+7, and +14 from the beginning of treatment administration. Video clips were analyzed using a dedicated software (Sonotumor, Bracco Swiss) to quantify the signal of the contrast agent. Time/intensity curves were obtained and the difference of the mean MBs signal before and after high MI impulse (Differential Targeted Enhancement-dTE) was calculated. dTE represents a numeric value in arbitrary units proportional to the amount of bound MBs. At day +14 mice were euthanized and the tumors analyzed for VEGFR-2, pERK, and CD31 tissue levels using western blot analysis. Results: dTE values decreased from day 0 to day +14 both in treatment and vehicle groups, and they were statistically higher in vehicle group than in treatment group at day +2, at day +7, and at day +14. With respect to the degree of tumor volume increase, measured as growth percentage delta (GPD), treatment group was divided in two sub-groups, non-responders (GPD>350%), and responders (GPD<200%). In the same way vehicle group was divided in slow growth group (GPD<400%), and fast growth group (GPD>900%). dTE values at day 0 (immediately before treatment start) were higher in non-responders than in responders group, with statistical difference at day 2. While dTE values were higher in the fast growth group than in the slow growth group only at day 0. A significant positive correlation was found between VEGFR-2 tissue levels and dTE values, confirming that level of BR55 tissue enhancement reflects the amount of tissue VEGF receptor. Conclusions: the present findings show that, at least in murine experimental models, CEUS with BR55 is feasable and appears to be a useful tool in the prediction of tumor growth and response to sorafenib treatment in xenograft HCC.

Generation of a NG2-EYFP mouse for studying the properties of NG2-expressing cells

A range of vectors were made in which the EYFP gene or the Cre gene were inserted in the start codon of the NG2 gene. The NG2-EYFP vectors were used to generate NG2-EYFP “knockin” mice by homologous recombination. The F1 generation showed lack of EYFP expression, due to NeoR cassette interference. Excision of the NeoR, by breeding the F1 generation to ELLA-Cre mice allowed proper expression of EYFP. NG2-EYFP heterozygous mice were characterized in detail for astrocytic, neurogenic and oligodendrocytic properties through antibody labeling. NG2-EYFP+ cells did not label for the astrocyte marker GFAP, but some cells did express S100 Beta. The cells did not label with any neuronal markers like Beta III tubulin, Neun, and double cortin, but many of the NG2-EYFP+ cells made intimate contacts to the neurons. These contacts are widespread throughout the grey and white matter of the brain. The NG2-EYFP+ cells did label for oligodendrocyte markers like PDGFα-R, NG2, Olig2, O4, and Sox 10. There were a few cells termed phantom cells that did label for NG2, but had no EYFP expression. This could have been caused by improper excision of the NeoR cassette in the F2 generation. The heterozygous mouse is a tool to allow the characterization of the in vivo properties of the NG2+ cells. Breeding of these mice to homozygosity yielded an NG2-knockout mouse, which was also subjected to initial characterization. The NG2-EYFP homozygous showed equivalent cell labeling results to the NG2-EYFP heterozygous mouse, but the phantom cells disappeared in the knockout. The results show that the NG2 cells are a heterogenous population that does not express astrocytic or neuronal markers. The homozygous mouse is an ideal tool to further dissect the properties of the cells, lacking NG2 in vivo.

Studio di espressione e funzione della PLCβ1 nucleare in modelli murini ed umani di cellule ematopoietiche mieloidi e linfoidi

The aims of this work were to investigate the role of nuclear Phospholipase C beta 1 (PI-PLCβ1) in human and mouse cell lines and to identify new binding partners of nuclear PI-PLCβ1 to further understand the functional network in which the enzyme acts. The intracellular distribution of PI-PLCβ1 was further investigated in human leukaemia cell lines (NB4, HL60, THP1, CEM, Jurkat, K562). With the exception of HL60, a high endogenous level of PI-PLCβ1 was detected in purified nuclei in each of the cell lines. We found that also in Ba/F3 pro-B cells overexpressing PI-PLCβ1b the protein localize within the nucleus. Although our data demonstrated that PI-PLCβ1b was not involved in cell proliferation and IGF-1 response as shown in other cell lines (FELC and Swiss 3T3), there was an effect on apoptosis. Activation of early apoptotic markers caspase-3 and PARP was delayed in PI-PLCβ1b overexpressing Ba/F3 cells treated with 5 gr/ml mitomycin C for 24h. We performed an antibody-specific immunoprecipitation on nuclear lysates from FELC-PLCβ1b cells. Mass spectrometry analysis (nano-ESI-Q-TOF) of co-immunoprecipitated proteins allowed for identification of 92 potential nuclear PI-PLCβ1b interactors. Among these, several already documented PI-PLCβ1b interacting partners (Srp20, LaminB, EF1α2) were identified, further validating our data. All the identified proteins were nuclear, mostly localized within the nuclear speckles. This evidence is particularly relevant as PI-PLCβ1 is known to localize in the same domains. Many of the identified proteins are involved in cell cycle, proliferation and transcriptional control. In particular, many of the proteins are components of the spliceosome multi-complex, strengthening the idea that PI-PLCβ1b is involved in mRNA processing and maturation. Future work will aim to better characterize the regulatory role of PI-PLCβ1b in mRNA splicing.

Sonic Hedgehog pathway impairment in Neural Precursor Cells of the Ts65Dn mouse, an animal model of Down syndrome

Mental retardation in Down syndrome (DS) has been imputed to the decreased brain volume, which is evident starting from the early phases of development. Recent studies in a widely used mouse model of DS, the Ts65Dn mouse, have shown that neurogenesis is severely impaired during the early phases of brain development, suggesting that this defect may be a major determinant of brain hypotrophy and mental retardation in individuals with DS. Recently, it has been found that in the cerebellum of Ts65Dn mice there is a defective responsiveness to Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), a potent mitogen that controls cell division during brain development, suggesting that failure of Shh signaling may underlie the reduced proliferation potency in DS. Based on these premises, we sought to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying derangement of the Shh pathway in neural precursor cells (NPCs) from Ts65Dn mice. We found that the expression levels of the Shh receptor Patched1 (Ptch1) were increased compared to controls both at the RNA and protein level. Partial silencing of Ptch1 expression in trisomic NPCs restored cell proliferation, indicating that proliferation impairment was due to Ptch1 overexpression. We further found that the overexpression of Ptch1 in trisomic NPCs is related to increased levels of AICD, a transcription-promoting fragment of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Increased AICD binding to the Ptch1 promoter favored its acetylated status, thus enhancing Ptch1 expression. Taken together, these data provide novel evidence that Ptch1 over expression underlies derangement of the Shh pathway in trisomic NPCs, with consequent proliferation impairment. The demonstration that Ptch1 over expression in trisomic NPCs is due to an APP fragment provides a link between this trisomic gene and the defective neuronal production that characterizes the DS brain.

Conditional and transgenic mouse models as tools to study the role of TGFbeta, BMP signaling in skeletal development

Die TGFbeta/BMP Signaltransduktionskaskade ist wichtig für viele Entwicklungsprozesse fast aller embryonaler sowie extraembryonaler Gewebe und sie ist ebenso essentiell bei der Aufrechterhaltung der Homöostase im adulten Organismus. In vielen Mausmodellen und Zellkulturversuchen wurde gezeigt, dass Liganden dieses Signalweges in verschiedene Stadien der Knorpel- und Knochenentwicklung involviert sind. BMPs sind beispielsweise maßgeblich an der frühen Kondensation und Bildung des Knorpels und später an Proliferation und Hypertrophie der Chondrozyten beteiligt. BMPs können ektopisch Knochenbildung auslösen und das Expressionsmuster der Liganden und spezifischen Rezeptoren in der Wachstumsfuge lässt auf eine wichtige Rolle der BMPs in der Wachstumsfuge schließen. Der gezielte knock out der BMP-Rezeptoren Bmpr1a und Bmpr1b in proliferierenden Chondrozyten führt zur Ausbildung einer generellen Chondrodysplasie. Smad1, Smad5 und Smad8 sind die Mediatoren der BMP-Signalkaskade. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte die Rolle und Funktion der Smad1- und Smad5-Proteine in der Wachstumsfuge untersucht werden. Hierzu wurden konditionale Smad1-knock out-Mäuse mit einer transgenen Mauslinie gekreuzt, die die Cre-Rekombinase spezifisch in proliferierenden Chondrozyten exprimiert. Diese Mäuse wurden mit und ohne heterozygotem Smad5-Hintergrund charakterisiert. Bei einem knock out von Smad1 allein konnte ein leichte Verkürzung der Wachstumsfuge beobachtet werden, wobei prähypertrophe und hypertrophe Zone gleichermaßen betroffen waren. Dieser Phänotyp war verstärkt in Mäusen mit zusätzlichem heterozygotem Smad5-Hintergrund. Eine Verringerung der Proliferationsrate konnte zusammen mit einer verminderten Ihh-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Zusätzlich konnte anhand von Röntgenaufnahmen eine Dysorganisation der nasalen Region und ein fehlendes nasales Septum beobachtet werden. Produktion und Mineralisation der extrazellulären Matrix waren nicht beeinträchtigt. Um die Rolle der BMP- und TGFbeta-Signalkaskaden während der endochondralen Ossifikation zu vergleichen, wurden transgene Mäuse generiert, in denen die TGFbeta-Signalkaskade spezifisch in proliferierenden Chondrozyten gestört war. Zwei Mauslinien, die ähnliche Phänotypen zeigten, wurden untersucht. Esl1 ist ein TGFbeta-bindendes Protein, von dem man annimmt, dass es die TGFbeta-Signalkaskade inhibieren kann. Esl1-knock out-Mäuse sind kleiner als Wildtypmäuse und die Überexpression von Esl1 in proliferierenden Chondrozyten führt zu einer Verlängerung der Wachstumsfuge und einer verstärkten Proliferationsrate. Knorpelmarker, wie Col2a1 und Sox9 sind in diesen Mäusen herunterreguliert, während Col10a1 und Ihh als Marker für die hypertrophe und prähypertrophe Zone herunterreguliert waren. Dies führt zu der Annahme, dass mehr Zellen in die terminale Differenzierung eintreten. Bei transgenen Mäusen, in denen ein dominant-negativer (dn) TGFbeta-Rezeptor in proliferierenden Chondrozyten überexprimiert wurde, konnte eine verlängerte prähypertrophe Zone, eine erhöhte Ihh-Expression, sowie eine verstärkte Proliferationsrate beobachtet werden. Zusätzlich konnte in homozygoten Tieren ein craniofacialer Phänotyp beschrieben werden, der zu Problemen bei der Nahrungsaufnahme und damit zu einer starken Wachstumsbeeinträchtigung führte. Die BMP- und TGFbeta-Signalkaskaden haben möglicherweise antagonistische Effekte in der Wachstumsfuge. Während der Ausfall von BMP in proliferierenden Chondrozyten aufgrund einer gesunkenen Proliferationsrate zu einer Verkürzung der Wachstumsfuge führte, kann man in Mäusen mit einer Störung der TGFbeta-Signalkaskade eine verstärkte Proliferation in einer daher verlängerten Wachstumsfuge beobachten. Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Generation einer transgenen Mauslinie, die die Cre-Rekombinase spezifisch in hypertrophen Chondrozyten exprimiert. Promoterstudien mit transgenen Mäusen weisen darauf hin, dass ein putatives AP1-Element, etwa 4 kb vor dem ersten Exon des Col10a1 gelegen, wichtig für die spezifische Expression in hypertrophen Chondrozyten ist. Ein Konstrukt, dass vier Kopien dieses Elements und den basalen Promoter enthält, wurde benutzt, um die Cre-Rekombinase spezifisch zu exprimieren. Diese Mauslinie befindet sich in der Testphase und erste Daten deuten auf eine spezifische Expression der Cre-Rekombinase in hypertrophen Chondrozyten hin.