AQUAREL CONCEPT Aquatic resources for green energy realization

The AQUAREL project studied the availability and optional utilization methods for fish processing side streams and other aquatic biomaterial in the Republic of Karelia. Additionally processing aquatic biomaterial with manure and sewage sludge was studied. Based on the results, the most feasible option today is to process fish side streams to fish oil and dewatered oil-free residue and to use them for fish or animal feed production. However, it is necessary to highlight, that changes in e.g. economic environment, energy prices and demand may require re-evaluating the results and conclusions made in the project. Producing fish oil from fish processing side streams is an easy and relatively simple production process generating a valuable end product. The functionality of the process was confirmed in a pilot conducted in the project. The oil and solids are separated from the heated fish waste based on gravity. The fish oil separating on top of the separator unit is removed. Fish oil can as such be utilized for heating purposes, fish meal or animal feed production, but it can also be further processed to biodiesel. However, due to currently moderate energy prices in Russia, biodiesel production is not economically profitable. Even if the fish oil production process is not complicated, the operative management of small-scale fish oil production unit requires dedicated resources and separate facilities especially to meet hygiene requirements. Managing the side streams is not a core business for fish farmers. Efficient and economically profitable fish oil production requires a centralized production unit with bigger processing capacity. One fish processing unit needs to be designed to manage side streams collected from several fish farms. The optimum location for the processing unit is in the middle of the fish farms. Based on the transportation cost analysis in the Republic of Karelia, it is not economically efficient to transport bio-wastes for more than 100 km since the transportation costs start increasing substantially. Another issue to be considered is that collection of side streams, including the dead fish, from the fish farms should be organized on a daily basis in order to eliminate the need for storing the side streams at the farms. Based on AQUAREL project studies there are different public funding sources available for supporting and enabling profitable and environmentally sustainable utilization, research or development of fish processing side streams and other aquatic biomaterial. Different funding programmes can be utilized by companies, research organizations, authorities and non-governmental organizations.

Energiantuotannossa talteenotetun hiilidioksidin hyötykäyttö

Hiilidioksidilla on merkittävä vaikutus ilmastoon ja suurin osa ihmisten käyttämästä energiasta perustuu hiilipohjaisiin polttoaineisiin. Energiantuotannossa talteenotetun hiilidioksidin hyötykäyttö tarjoaa erinomaisen mahdollisuuden ilmastonmuutoksen vai-kutusten vähentämiseen vaikuttamatta kuitenkaan merkittävästi käytettyihin energialäh-teisiin. CO2:n talteenottotekniikat voidaan jakaa neljään periaatteeltaan erilaiseen tyyppiin: pol-ton jälkeiseen talteenottoon, ennen polttoa tapahtuvaan talteenottoon, happipolttoon ja kemialliseen kiertoon perustuvaan palamiseen. Polton jälkeinen ja ennen polttoa tapah-tuva talteenotto edustavat eniten tutkittua ja käytettyä tekniikkaa. Hyötykäyttökohteita CO2:lla on useita, joista nykyiset merkittävimmät ovat öljyn tuo-tannon tehostus ja elintarviketeollisuus. Tulevaisuudessa merkittäviä käyttökohteita tulee todennäköisesti olemaan uusiutuvan energian varastointi synteettiseen metaa-niin/metanoliin, kemian-, paperi- ja selluteollisuuden prosessit ja vedenkäsittely.

Suomen kasvihuonekaasupäästöt Kioton pöytäkirjan ensimmäisen sopimuskauden lopussa – kokonaistilanne ja vähentämistoimenpiteet

Tämä diplomityö on läpileikkaus kasvihuonekaasupäästöistä sekä niitä koskevista vähennystoimenpiteistä Suomessa Kioton pöytäkirjan ensimmäisen sopimuskauden lopussa. Työ on toteutettu kirjallisuustutkimuksena ja siihen on käytetty painettuja sekä sähköisiä lähteitä. Huoli ilmastonmuutoksesta on saanut aikaan sen, että kasvihuonekaasupäästöjä rajoitetaan tänä päivänä kansainvälisillä sopimuksilla. Vaikka kaikki suuretkaan päästäjämaat eivät ole sopimuksia ratifioineet, ovat EU-maat Suomi mukaan lukien sitoutuneet YK:n ilmastonmuutosta koskevaan puitesopimukseen ja sen noudattamiseen. Puitesopimusta tarkentavassa Kioton pöytäkirjassa EU sitoutui vähentämään kuuden eri kasvihuonekaasun kokonaispäästöjä yhteensä 8 prosenttia ajanjaksolla 2008–2012 vuoteen 1990 verrattuna. Kasvihuonekaasut, joita rajoitukset koskivat, olivat hiilidioksidi, metaani, dityppioksidi, fluorihiilivedyt, perfluorihiilivedyt ja rikkiheksafluoridi. EU:n sisäisessä taakanjaossa Suomen tavoite oli pitää päästöt vertailuvuoden 1990 tasossa ja Suomi alitti tämän noin viidellä prosentilla. Vuoden 2012 jälkeen Suomen kasvihuonekaasupäästöjen vähennystavoite on kiristynyt. Vuosille 2013–2020 Suomen tavoite on vähentää kasvihuonekaasupäästöjä 20 prosenttia alle perusvuoden 1990 tason. Työssä tutustutaan myös keinoihin, joilla aiempien ja tulevien päästöjenvähennystavoitteiden saavuttaminen on mahdollista. Näitä keinoja on mm. erilaisten biopolttoaineiden sekoittaminen fossiilisten polttoaineiden sekaan, energiatehokkuuden parantaminen ja biokaasun käytön lisääminen. Lisäksi työssä käsitellään eräitä merkityksellisiä käsitteitä, kuten EU:n päästökauppajärjestelmä ja hiilidioksidin talteenotto ja varastointi.

Potential for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions by Using Biomethane as a Road Transportation Fuel

The aim of this thesis is to study whether the use of biomethane as a transportation fuel is reasonable from climate change perspective. In order to identify potentials and challenges for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, this dissertation focuses on GHG emission comparisons, on feasibility studies and on the effects of various calculation methodologies. The GHG emissions calculations are carried out by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies. The aim of these LCA studies is to figure out the key parameters affecting the GHG emission saving potential of biomethane production and use and to give recommendations related to methodological choices. The feasibility studies are also carried out from the life cycle perspective by dividing the biomethane production chain for various operators along the life cycle of biomethane in order to recognize economic bottlenecks. Biomethane use in the transportation sector leads to GHG emission reductions compared to fossil transportation fuels in most cases. In addition, electricity and heat production from landfill gas, biogas or biomethane leads to GHG reductions as well. Electricity production for electric vehicles is also a potential route to direct biogas or biomethane energy to transportation sector. However, various factors along the life cycle of biomethane affect the GHG reduction potentials. Furthermore, the methodological selections have significant effects on the results. From economic perspective, there are factors related to different operators along the life cycle of biomethane, which are not encouraging biomethane use in the transportation sector. To minimize the greenhouse gas emissions from the life cycle of biomethane, waste feedstock should be preferred. In addition, energy consumption, methane leakages, digestate utilization and the current use of feedstock or biogas are also key factors. To increase the use of biomethane in the transportation sector, political steering is needed to improve the feasibility for the operators. From methodological perspective, it is important to recognize the aim of the life cycle assessment study. The life cycle assessment studies can be divided into two categories: 1.) To produce average GHG information of biomethane to evaluate the acceptability of biomethane use compared to fossil transportation fuels. 2.) To produce GHG information of biomethane related to actual decision-making situations. This helps to figure out the actual GHG emission changes in cases when feedstock, biogas or biomethane are already in other use. For example directing biogas from electricity production to transportation use does not necessarily lead to additional GHG emission reductions. The use of biomethane seems to have a lot of potential for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as a transportation fuel. However, there are various aspects related to production processes, to the current use of feedstock or biogas and to the feasibility that have to be taken into account.

NIR-Vis Up-Conversion Luminescence in the Yb3+,Er3+ Doped Y2O2S, ZrO2, and NaYF4 Nanomaterials

Since the discovery of the up-conversion phenomenon, there has been an ever increasing interest in up-converting phosphors in which the absorption of two or more low energy photons is followed by emission of a higher energy photon. Most up-conversion luminescence materials operate by using a combination of a trivalent rare earth (lanthanide) sensitizer (e.g. Yb or Er) and an activator (e.g. Er, Ho, Tm or Pr) ion in a crystal lattice. Up-converting phosphors have a variety of potential applications as lasers and displays as well as inks for security printing (e.g. bank notes and bonds). One of the most sophisticated applications of lanthanide up-conversion luminescence is probably in medical diagnostics. However, there are some major problems in the use of photoluminescence based on the direct UV excitation in immunoassays. Human blood absorbs strongly UV radiation as well as the emission of the phosphor in the visible. A promising way to overcome the problems arising from the blood absorption is to use a long wavelength excitation and benefit from the up-conversion luminescence. Since there is practically no absorption by the whole-blood in the near IR region, it has no capability for up-conversion in the excitation wavelength region of the conventional up-converting phosphor based on the Yb3+ (sensitizer) and Er3+ (activator) combination. The aim of this work was to prepare nanocrystalline materials with high red (and green) up-conversion luminescence efficiency for use in quantitative whole-blood immunoassays. For coupling to biological compounds, nanometer-sized (crystallite size below 50 nm) up-converting phosphor particles are required. The nanocrystalline ZrO2:Yb3+,Er3+, Y2O2S:Yb3+,Er3+, NaYF4:Yb3+,Er3+ and NaRF4-NaR’F4 (R: Y, Yb, Er) materials, prepared with the combustion, sol-gel, flux, co-precipitation and solvothermal synthesis, were studied using the thermal analysis, FT-IR spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, EDX spectroscopy, XANES/EXAFS measurements, absorption spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, as well as up-conversion and thermoluminescence spectroscopies. The effect of the impurities of the phosphors, crystallite size, as well as the crystal structure on the up-conversion luminescence intensity was analyzed. Finally, a new phenomenon, persistent up-conversion luminescence was introduced and discussed. For efficient use in bioassays, more work is needed to yield nanomaterials with smaller and more uniform crystallite sizes. Surface modifications need to be studied to improve the dispersion in water. On the other hand, further work must be carried out to optimize the persistent up-conversion luminescence of the nanomaterials to allow for their use as efficient immunoassay nanomaterials combining the advantages of both up-conversion and persistent luminescence.

From emerging opportunities to successful business networks – evidence from bioenergy

Increasing renewable energy utilization is a challenge that is tried to be solved in different ways. One of the most promising options for renewable energy is different biomasses, and the bioenergy field offers numerous emerging business opportunities. The actors in the field have rarely all the needed know-how and resources for exploiting these opportunities, and thus it is reasonable to seize them in cooperation. Networking is not an easy task to carry out, however, and in addition to its advantages for the firms engaged, it sets numerous challenges as well. The development of a network is a result of several steps firms need to take. In order to gain optimal advantage of their networks, firms need to weigh out with whom, why and how they should cooperate. In addition, everything does not depend on the firms themselves, as several factors in the external environment set their own enablers and barriers for cooperation. The formation of a network around a business opportunity is thus a multiphase process. The objective of this thesis is to depict this process via a step-by-step analysis and thus increase understanding on the whole development path from an entrepreneurial opportunity to a successful business network. The empirical evidence has been gathered by discussing the opportunities of animal manure refinement to biogas and forest biomass utilization for heating in Finland. The thesis comprises two parts. The first part provides an overview of the study, and the second part includes five research publications. The results reveal that it is essential to identify and analyze all the steps in the development process of a network, and several frameworks are used in the thesis to analyze these steps. The frameworks combine the views of theory and practical experiences of empirical study, and thus give new multifaceted views for the discussion on SME networking. The results indicate that the ground for cooperation should be investigated adequately by taking account of the preconditions in all the three contexts in which the actors operate: the social context, the region and the institutional environment. In case the project advances to exploitation, the assets and objectives of the actors should be paired off, which sets a need for relationships and sub-networks differing in breadth and depth. Different relationships and networks require different kinds of maintenance and management. Moreover, the actors should have the capability to change the formality or strategy of the relationships if needed. The drivers for these changes come along with the changing environment, which causes changes in the objectives of the actors and this way in the whole network. Bioenergy as the empirical field of the study represents well an industrial field with many emerging opportunities, a motley group of actors, and sensitivity for fast changes.

Heterogeneous mass transfer in fluidized beds by computational fluid dynamics

The main objective of this research is to estimate and characterize heterogeneous mass transfer coefficients in bench- and pilot-scale fluidized bed processes by the means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). A further objective is to benchmark the heterogeneous mass transfer coefficients predicted by fine-grid Eulerian CFD simulations against empirical data presented in the scientific literature. First, a fine-grid two-dimensional Eulerian CFD model with a solid and gas phase has been designed. The model is applied for transient two-dimensional simulations of char combustion in small-scale bubbling and turbulent fluidized beds. The same approach is used to simulate a novel fluidized bed energy conversion process developed for the carbon capture, chemical looping combustion operated with a gaseous fuel. In order to analyze the results of the CFD simulations, two one-dimensional fluidized bed models have been formulated. The single-phase and bubble-emulsion models were applied to derive the average gas-bed and interphase mass transfer coefficients, respectively. In the analysis, the effects of various fluidized bed operation parameters, such as fluidization, velocity, particle and bubble diameter, reactor size, and chemical kinetics, on the heterogeneous mass transfer coefficients in the lower fluidized bed are evaluated extensively. The analysis shows that the fine-grid Eulerian CFD model can predict the heterogeneous mass transfer coefficients quantitatively with acceptable accuracy. Qualitatively, the CFD-based research of fluidized bed process revealed several new scientific results, such as parametrical relationships. The huge variance of seven orders of magnitude within the bed Sherwood numbers presented in the literature could be explained by the change of controlling mechanisms in the overall heterogeneous mass transfer process with the varied process conditions. The research opens new process-specific insights into the reactive fluidized bed processes, such as a strong mass transfer control over heterogeneous reaction rate, a dominance of interphase mass transfer in the fine-particle fluidized beds and a strong chemical kinetic dependence of the average gas-bed mass transfer. The obtained mass transfer coefficients can be applied in fluidized bed models used for various engineering design, reactor scale-up and process research tasks, and they consequently provide an enhanced prediction accuracy of the performance of fluidized bed processes.

Biopolttoaineiden ongelmat

Biopolttoaineilla on tärkeä rooli tulevaisuuden energiahuollossa. Biopolttoaineiden käyttöä pyritäänkin lisäämään monin keinoin. Ensimmäisen sukupolven biopolttoaineet ovat jo olleet aikansa markkinoilla ja toisen sukupolven polttoaineet ovat saapumassa markkinoille. Tässä työssä tutkitaan eri biopolttoaine vaihtoehtoja ensimmäisestä toiseen sukupolveen sekä tutkitaan niiden käytön ongelmia. Biopolttoaineiden käyttö on lisääntynyt huomattavasti viime vuosien aikoina, jonka myötä on tullut esiin monia ongelmia. Ongelmia aiheuttavat niin ilmastolliset, taloudelliset, teknologiset kuin valtapoliittiset asiat.

Promoting Cleantech in Emerging Markets: Business Model for Waste Pre-treatment Equipment in China

Waste incineration is becoming increasingly widespread method of waste disposal in China. Incineration plants mostly use grate and circular fluidized bed (CFB) technology. Waste combustion in cement production is also beginning to gradually increase. However, Chinese waste composition is causing problems for the energy utilization. Mechanical waste pre-treatment optimizes the combustion process and facilitates the energy recovery. The objective of this study is to identify how Western waste pre-treatment manufacturer could operate in Chinese markets. Chinese waste management industry is reviewed via PESTEL analysis. The current state and future predictions of grate and CFB incineration as well as cement manufacturing are monitored. Grate combustion, which requires lesser waste pre-treatment, is becoming more common at the expense of CFB incineration in China. The most promising future for waste treatment is in cement production industry. Waste treatment equipment manufacturer should try to create pilot projects with biggest cement producers with a view of growing co-operation in the future.

Reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions in lime kiln

Different nitrogen oxide removal technologies for rotary lime kiln are studied in this thesis, the main focus being in commercial technologies. Post-combustion methods are investigated in more detail as potential possible NOx removal with combustion methods in rotary lime kiln is more limited or primary methods are already in use. However, secondary methods as NOx scrubber, SNCR or SCR technologies are not listed as the Best Available Technologies defined by European Union. BAT technologies for NOx removal in lime kiln are (1) Optimised combustion and combustion control, (2) Good mixing of fuel and air, (3) Low-NOx burner and (4) Fuel selection/low-N fuel. SNCR method is the most suitable technique for NOx removal in lime kiln when NOx removal from 50 % to 70 % is required in case primary methods are already in use or cannot be applied. In higher removal cases ammonia slip is an issue in SNCR. By using SCR better NOx reduction can be achieved but issues with catalyst materials are expected to arise because of the dust and sulphur dioxide which leads to catalyst poison formation in lower flue gas temperatures. NOx scrubbing has potential when simultaneous NOx and SO2 removal is required. The challenge is that NO cannot be scrubbed directly, but once it is oxidized to NO2 or further scrubbing can be performed as the solubility of NO2 is higher. Commercial installations have not been made regarding SNCR, SCR or NOx scrubbing regarding rotary lime kiln. For SNCR and SCR the closest references come from cement industry.

Bio- ja maakaasu liikennepolttoaineena Suomessa

Työssä tarkastellaan bio- ja maakaasun käyttöä Suomen tieliikenteen polttoaineena. Työn lähtökohtana on selvittää kaasukäyttöisten ajoneuvojen käytön kannattavuutta Suomessa ja niiden etuja muihin polttoaineisiin nähden. Tutkielmassa perehdytään erityisesti biokaasun käyttöön fossiilisten polttoaineiden korvaajana ja mitä vaatimuksia sen käytön lisääminen edellyttää. Työssä perehdytään kaasujen tuotantomenetelmiin, jakeluun, taloudelliseen kannattavuuteen, ympäristöystävällisyyteen ja tulevaisuuden näkymiin.

Liikennebiokaasun jakelu Mikkelin seudulla: teknologia-, kustannus- ja kannattavuustarkastelu

Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena oli tarkastella biokaasun liikennekäyttöön tarvittavia teknologisia ratkaisuja ja tehdä kustannusvertailua erilaisten jakeluvaihtoehtojen välillä Mikkelin ympäristön case-tapauksessa. Työn teoriaosassa on esitelty teknologisia vaihtoehtoja liikennebiokaasun jakelulle sekä eri teknologioiden kustannuksia. Tietämys eri teknologiavaihtoehdoista ja niiden hinnoista on muodostettu kirjallisuuskatsauksen, asiantuntijahaastatteluiden sekä saatujen tarjousten perusteella. Työn empiriaosassa on tarkasteltu kolmen eri jakeluskenaarion kustannuksia käyttäen elinkaarikustannuslaskentaa, sekä toimintoperusteista kustannuslaskentaa. Liikennebiokaasun jakelun kustannuksiksi työn case-tapauksissa saatiin jakelutavasta riippuen 0,37 €/kg – 1,02 €/kg (2,64 snt/kWh – 7,29 snt/kWh). Edullisin vaihtoehto liikennebiokaasun jakeluun on työn perusteella myydä tuotettu kaasu tuotantolaitoksella. Jos kaasua siirretään tankattavaksi tytärasemalle, on vaihtoehtoina paineistettu kaasu siirtokontein, nesteytetty kaasu trailerilla tai putkisiirto. Halvin siirtokeino tämän työn skenaarioissa oli kaasun putkisiirto.

Evaluating land-use related environmental impacts of biomass value chains for decision-support : Comparison and testing of methodologies proposed for environmental life cycle assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is one of the most established quantitative tools for environmental impact assessment of products. To be able to provide support to environmentally-aware decision makers on environmental impacts of biomass value-chains, the scope of LCA methodology needs to be augmented to cover landuse related environmental impacts. This dissertation focuses on analysing and discussing potential impact assessment methods, conceptual models and environmental indicators that have been proposed to be implemented into the LCA framework for impacts of land use. The applicability of proposed indicators and impact assessment frameworks is tested from practitioners' perspective, especially focusing on forest biomass value chains. The impacts of land use on biodiversity, resource depletion, climate change and other ecosystem services is analysed and discussed and the interplay in between value choices in LCA modelling and the decision-making situations to be supported is critically discussed. It was found out that land use impact indicators are necessary in LCA in highlighting differences in impacts from distinct land use classes. However, many open questions remain on certainty of highlighting actual impacts of land use, especially regarding impacts of managed forest land use on biodiversity and ecosystem services such as water regulation and purification. The climate impact of energy use of boreal stemwood was found to be higher in the short term and lower in the long-term in comparison with fossil fuels that emit identical amount of CO2 in combustion, due to changes implied to forest C stocks. The climate impacts of energy use of boreal stemwood were found to be higher than the previous estimates suggest on forest residues and stumps. The product lifetime was found to have much higher influence on the climate impacts of woodbased value chains than the origin of stemwood either from thinnings or final fellings. Climate neutrality seems to be likely only in the case when almost all the carbon of harvested wood is stored in long-lived wooden products. In the current form, the land use impacts cannot be modelled with a high degree of certainty nor communicated with adequate level of clarity to decision makers. The academia needs to keep on improving the modelling framework, and more importantly, clearly communicate to decision-makers the limited certainty on whether land-use intensive activities can help in meeting the strict mitigation targets we are globally facing.

Keskitehoestimaattorin lisääminen diesel-sähköiseen hybridijärjestelmään

Nykyajan jatkuvasti kiristyvät päästörajoitukset ja ilmastonmuutoksen uhka ovat ajavia voimia kehittämään voimalaitosten tekniikkaa energiatehokkaampaan ja ympäristöystävällisempään suuntaan. Polttomoottoritekniikan parantaminen on tärkeä osa tätä kehitystä, mutta jo nykyisiä moottoreita voitaisiin ajaa energiate-hokkaammin käyttämällä akustoa ja älykästä säätöjärjestelmää apuna. Työssä tutkitaan simulaatioiden avulla voidaanko ulkomerellä toimivan huolto-aluksen energiatehokkuutta parantaa muokkaamalla sen tehon tuottoa keskitehoes-timaattorin ja akuston avulla.

Korkeasti kuormitetun soodakattilan likaantumisen ja päästöjen vähentäminen

Tässä työssä perehdytään korkeasti kuormitettujen soodakattiloiden tyypillisiin ongelmiin. Ongelmia ovat likaantuminen ja tukkeutuminen sekä liialliset päästöt. Työn teoriaosassa esitetään taustat likaantumiselle ja päästöjen muodostumiselle. Molemmat johtuvat suurelta osin tulipesän huonosta toiminnasta. Soodakattilan ilmajärjestelmä ja mustalipeän ruiskutus vaikuttavat tulipesän toimintaan. Usein tulipesän toimintaa voidaan parantaa ilmajärjestelmän ja lipeänruiskutuksen säätöjä muuttamalla. Suurempi muutos tulipesän toimintaan saadaan uusimalla perinteinen sekundääri-ilmajärjestelmä vertikaali-ilmajärjestelmäksi. Nykyaikainen vertikaali-ilmajärjestelmä sekoittaa savukaasut tehokkaasti ja saa aikaan tasaisemman virtauksen tulipesään. Myös mustalipeän korkea kloori- ja kaliumpitoisuus voivat aiheuttaa lämpöpintojen likaantumista. Oikea nuohointen sijainti on tärkeä tekijä kattilan puhtaana pysymisen kannalta. Työn kokeellisessa osassa selvitetään, kuinka erään eukalyptussellutehtaan korkeasti kuormitetun soodakattilan käytettävyyttä voidaan parantaa ja kapasiteettia nostaa soodakattilan toimintaa virittämällä. Kattilan nykyinen ajomalli ja ongelmat selvitettiin. Tulipesän toimintaa testattiin muuttamalla ilmajakoa primääri-, sekundääri- ja tertiääri-ilman välillä ja muuttamalla sekundääri-ilman syöttöä tulipesään. Testien ja kerätyn tiedon perusteella voitiin päätellä, miten soodakattilaa kannattaa modernisoida kapasiteetin nostamiseksi ja käytettävyyden parantamiseksi. Usein tulipesän toimintaa ja käytettävyyttä voidaan parantaa paljon jo pienilläkin muutostöillä. Kapasiteetin nostaminen vaatii tavallisesti suuremman investoinnin ja pidennetyn vuosihuoltoseisokin.