On the volume of 4-cycle trades

A 4-cycle trade of volume t corresponds to a simple graph G without isolated vertices, where the edge set can be partitioned into t 4-cycles in at least two different ways such that the two collections of 4-cycles have no 4-cycles in common. The foundation of the trade is v = \V(G)\. This paper determines for which values oft and a there exists a 4-cycle trade of volume t and foundation v.

Life cycle evolution in the Digenea: a new perspective from phylogeny

We use a new molecular phylogeny, developed from small and large subunit ribosomal RNA genes, to explore evolution of the digenean life cycle. Our approach is to map character states on the phylogeny and then use parsimony to infer how the character evolved. We conclude that, plesiomorphically, digenean miracidia hatched from eggs and penetrated gastropod first intermediate hosts externally. Fork-tailed cercariae were produced in rediae and emerged from the snail to be eaten directly by the teleost definitive host. These plesiomorphic characters are seen in extant Bivesiculidae. We infer that external encystment and the use of second intermediate hosts are derived from this behaviour and that second intermediate hosts have been adopted repeatedly. Tetrapod definitive hosts have also been adopted repeatedly. The new phylogeny proposes a basal dichotomy between 'Diplostomida' (Diplostomoidea, Schistosomatoidea and Brachylaimoidea) and 'Plagiorchiida' (all other digeneans). There is no evidence for coevolution between these clades and groups of gastropods. The most primitive life cycles are seen in basal Plagiorchiida. Basal Diplostomida have three-host life cycles and are associated with tetrapods. The blood flukes (Schistosomatoidea) are inferred to have derived their two-host life cycles by abbreviating three-host cycles. Diplostomida have no adult stages in fishes except by life cycle abbreviation. We present and test a radical hypothesis that the blood-fluke cycle is plesiomorphic within the Diplostomida.

Epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the detection of serum antibodies to West Nile virus in multiple avian species

We report the development of epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for the rapid detection of serum antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV) in taxonomically diverse North American avian species. A panel of flavivirus-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) was tested in blocking assays with serum samples from WNV-infected chickens and crows. Selected MAbs were further tested against serum samples from birds that represented 16 species and 10 families. Serum samples were collected from birds infected with WW or Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and from noninfected control birds. Serum samples from SLEV-infected birds were included in these experiments because WNV and SLEV are closely related antigenically, are maintained in similar transmission cycles, and have overlapping geographic distributions. The ELISA that utilized MAb 3.11126 potentially discriminated between WW and SLEV infections, as all serum samples from WNV-infected birds and none from SLEV-infected birds were positive in this assay. Assays with MAbs 2132 and 6B6C-1 readily detected serum antibodies in all birds infected with WNV and SLEV, respectively, and in most birds infected with the other virus. Two other MAbs partially discriminated between infections with these two viruses. Serum samples from most WNV-infected birds but no SLEV-infected birds were positive with MAb 3.676, while almost all serum samples from SLEV-infected birds but few from WNV-infected birds were positive with MAb 6B5A-5. The blocking assays reported here provide a rapid, reliable, and inexpensive diagnostic and surveillance technique to monitor WNV activity in multiple avian species.

The Galilean turn in population ecology

The standard mathematical models in population ecology assume that a population's growth rate is a function of its environment. In this paper we investigate an alternative proposal according to which the rate of change of the growth rate is a function of the environment and of environmental change. We focus on the philosophical issues involved in such a fundamental shift in theoretical assumptions, as well as on the explanations the two theories offer for some of the key data such as cyclic populations. We also discuss the relationship between this move in population ecology and a similar move from first-order to second-order differential equations championed by Galileo and Newton in celestial mechanics.

Vector competence of Australian mosquitoes (Diptera : Culicidae) for Japanese encephalitis virus

Australian mosquitoes were evaluated for their ability to become infected with and transmit a Torres Strait strain of Japanese encephalitis virus. Mosquitoes, which were obtained from either laboratory colonies and collected using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps baited with CO2 and octenol or reared from larvae, were infected by feeding on a blood/sucrose solution containing 10(4.5+/-0.1) porcine stable-equine kidney (PS-EK) tissue culture infectious dose(50)/ mosquito of the TS3306 virus strain. After 14 d, infection and transmission rates of 100% and 81%, respectively, were obtained for a southeast Queensland strain of Culex annulirostris Skuse, and 93% and 61%, respectively, for a far north Queensland strain. After 13 or more days, infection and transmission rates of > 90% and greater than or equal to 50%, respectively, were obtained for southeast Queensland strains of Culex sitiens Wiedemann and Culex quinquefasciatus Say, and a far north Queensland strain of Culex gelidus Theobald. Although infection rates were > 55%, only 17% of Ochlerotatus vigilax (Skuse) and no Cx. quinquefasciatus, collected from far north Queensland, transmitted virus. North Queensland strains of Aedes aegypti L., Ochlerotatus kochi (Donitz), and Verrallina funerea (Theobald) were relatively refractory to infection. Vertical transmission was not detected among 673 F, progeny of Oc. vigilax. Results of the current vector competence study, coupled with high field isolation rates, host feeding patterns and widespread distribution, confirm the status of Cx. annulirostris as the major vector of Japanese encephalitis virus in northern Australia. The relative roles of other species in potential Japanese encephalitis virus transmission cycles in northern Australia are discussed.

Synthesis, stability, antiviral activity, and protease-bound structures of substrate-mimicking constrained macrocyclic inhibitors of HIV-1 protease

Three new peptidomimetics (1-3) have been developed with highly stable and conformationally constrained macrocyclic components that replace tripeptide segments of protease substrates. Each compound inhibits both HIV-1 protease and viral replication (HIV-I, HIV-2) at nanomolar concentrations without cytotoxicity to uninfected cells below 10 mu M. Their activities against HIV-1 protease (K-i 1.7 nM (1), 0.6 nM (2), 0.3 nM (3)) are 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than their antiviral potencies against HIV-1-infected primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells (IC50 45 nM (1), 56 nM (2), 95 nM (3)) or HIV-1-infected MT2 cells (IC50 90 nM (1), 60 nM (2)), suggesting suboptimal cellular uptake. However their antiviral potencies are similar to those of indinavir and amprenavir under identical conditions. There were significant differences in their capacities to inhibit the replication of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in infected MT2 cells, 1 being ineffective against HIV-2 while 2 was equally effective against both virus types. Evidence is presented that 1 and 2 inhibit cleavage of the HIV-1 structural protein precursor Pr55(gag) to p24 in virions derived from chronically infected cells, consistent with inhibition of the viral protease in cells. Crystal structures refined to 1.75 Angstrom (1) and 1.85 Angstrom (2) for two of the macrocyclic inhibitors bound to HIV-1 protease establish structural mimicry of the tripeptides that the cycles were designed to imitate. Structural comparisons between protease-bound macrocyclic inhibitors, VX478 (amprenavir), and L-735,524 (indinavir) show that their common acyclic components share the same space in the active site of the enzyme and make identical interactions with enzyme residues. This substrate-mimicking minimalist approach to drug design could have benefits in the context of viral resistance, since mutations which induce inhibitor resistance may also be those which prevent substrate processing.

Retinal specializations in the blue marlin: eyes designed for sensitivity to low light levels

The large eyes and well-developed visual system of billfishes suggest that vision is an important sense for the detection and interception of prey and lures. Investigations of visual abilities in these large pelagic fishes are difficult, however anatomical studies of billfish eyes and retinas allow prediction of a number of visual capabilities. From the density of ganglion cells in the blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) retina, visual acuities of less than 10 cycles per degree were derived, a surprisingly low visual resolution given the absolute size of the marlin eye. Cone photoreceptors, on the other hand, were present in high densities, resulting in a presumed summation of cones to ganglion cells at a ratio of 40:1, even in the area of best vision. The optical sensitivity of the marlin eye was high owing to the large dimensions of the cone photoreceptors. These results indicate that the marlin eye is specifically adapted to cope with the low light levels encountered during diving. Since the marlin is likely to use its vision at depth, it is suggested that this line of research could help estimate the limits of vertical distribution based on light level.

ATP activates ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) in vitro - Importance of autophosphorylation

Ataxia-telangiectasia Mutated (ATM), mutated in the human disorder ataxia-telangiectasia, is rapidly activated by DNA double strand breaks. The mechanism of activation remains unresolved, and it is uncertain whether autophosphorylation contributes to activation. We describe an in vitro immunoprecipitation system demonstrating activation of ATM kinase from unirradiated extracts by preincubation with ATP. Activation is both time- and ATP concentration-dependent, other nucleotides fail to activate ATM, and DNA is not required. ATP activation is specific for ATM since it is not observed with kinase-dead ATM, it requires Mn2+, and it is inhibited by wortmannin. Exposure of activated ATM to phosphatase abrogates activity, and repeat cycles of ATP and phosphatase treatment reveal a requirement for autophosphorylation in the activation process. Phosphopeptide mapping revealed similarities between the patterns of autophosphorylation for irradiated and ATP-treated ATM. Caffeine inhibited ATM kinase activity for substrates but did not interfere with ATM autophosphorylation. ATP failed to activate either A-T and rad3-related protein (ATR) or DNA-dependent protein kinase under these conditions, supporting the specificity for ATM. These data demonstrate that ATP can specifically induce activation of ATM by a mechanism involving autophosphorylation. The relationship of this activation to DNA damage activation remains unclear but represents a useful model for understanding in vivo activation.

Flavivirus isolations from mosquitoes collected from western Cape York Peninsula, Australia, 1999-2000

After the 1st appearance of Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) on mainland Australia in 1998, a study was undertaken to investigate whether JE had become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York Peninsula. Adult mosquitoes were collected during the late wet season from Kowanyama and Pormpuraaw in April 1999, and Pormpuraaw and Barr's Yard in April 2000. Despite processing 269,270 mosquitoes for virus isolation, no isolates of JE were obtained. However, other flaviviruses comprising Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Kunjin virus, Alfuy virus, and Kokobera virus (KOK) were isolated. Isolates of the alphaviruses Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus (BF), and Sindbis virus (SIN) also were obtained. The majority (88%) of isolates were from members of the Culex sitiens subgroup. Single isolates of KOK, BF and SIN were obtained from Ochlerotatus vigilax, Oc. normanensis, and Anopheles bancroftii, respectively. The isolations of flaviviruses during the late wet season indicate that conditions were suitable for flavivirus activity in the area. No evidence was found to suggest that JE has become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York, although study sites and field trips were limited.

Unsaturated diffusivity functions for concrete derived from NMR images

Deterioration of concrete or reinforcing steel through excessive contaminant concentration is often the result of repeated wetting and drying cycles. At each cycle, the absorption of water carries new contaminants into the unsaturated concrete. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is used with large concrete samples to observe the shape of the wetting profile during a simple one-dimensional wetting process. The absorption of water by dry concrete is modelled by a nonlinear diffusion equation with the unsaturated hydraulic diffusivity being a strongly nonlinear function of the moisture content. Exponential and power functions are used for the hydraulic diffusivity and corresponding solutions of the diffusion equation adequately predict the shape of the experimental wetting profile. The shape parameters, describing the wetting profile, vary little between different blends and are relatively insensitive to subsequent re-wetting experiments allowing universal parameters to be suggested for these concretes.

Evaluating plant breeding strategies by simulating gene action and dryland environment effects

Functional genomics is the systematic study of genome-wide effects of gene expression on organism growth and development with the ultimate aim of understanding how networks of genes influence traits. Here, we use a dynamic biophysical cropping systems model (APSIM-Sorg) to generate a state space of genotype performance based on 15 genes controlling four adaptive traits and then search this spice using a quantitative genetics model of a plant breeding program (QU-GENE) to simulate recurrent selection. Complex epistatic and gene X environment effects were generated for yield even though gene action at the trait level had been defined as simple additive effects. Given alternative breeding strategies that restricted either the cultivar maturity type or the drought environment type, the positive (+) alleles for 15 genes associated with the four adaptive traits were accumulated at different rates over cycles of selection. While early maturing genotypes were favored in the Severe-Terminal drought environment type, late genotypes were favored in the Mild-Terminal and Midseason drought environment types. In the Severe-Terminal environment, there was an interaction of the stay-green (SG) trait with other traits: Selection for + alleles of the SG genes was delayed until + alleles for genes associated with the transpiration efficiency and osmotic adjustment traits had been fixed. Given limitations in our current understanding of trait interaction and genetic control, the results are not conclusive. However, they demonstrate how the per se complexity of gene X gene X environment interactions will challenge the application of genomics and marker-assisted selection in crop improvement for dryland adaptation.

O recorrente apelo das reformas gerenciais: uma breve compara????o

Reformas de corte gerencial n??o s??o uma novidade no Brasil e est??o condenadas a reaparecerem de forma recorrente, dado o incessante processo de renova????o das teorias de administra????o no setor privado. Dado permanente apelo que det??m junto ?? ??rea governamental, ?? natural que estejam continuamente sendo transplantadas para o setor p??blico com maior ou menor sucesso, conforme um conjunto de circunst??ncias e caracter??sticas. O trabalho busca fazer uma breve an??lise comparativa dos processos de transforma????es em determinadas pol??ticas de gest??o p??blica nos dois ciclos de reformas autodenominadas gerenciais ocorridas nos dois mandatos de Fernando Henrique Cardoso. O texto identifica contrastes em rela????o a aspectos do policy making process nos dois momentos, com ??nfase para os momentos relacionados com a forma????o da agenda, especifica????o de propostas e processos decis??rios. Na primeira parte s??o recuperadas algumas quest??es comuns a outro esfor??o de reforma ??? no caso a de 1967 ??? e na conclus??o, s??o feitos alguns coment??rios relacionados com o legado de reformas de cunho gerencial no contexto do governo atual.

Dos clássicos aos hereges : Keynes e a economia de seu tempo

O artigo trata da posição teórica de Keynes relativamente à economia clássica e à abordagem denominada herética. A primeira seção resgata os traços distintivos das escolas clássica e neoclássica segundo a demarcação proposta por Keynes, bem como as críticas por ele dirigidas às principais teses defendidas por essas linhagens teóricas. A seguir, retoma-se a sua avaliação dos argumentos subconsumistas, indicando-se os seus pontos de convergência e distanciamento dessa visão econômica. Na continuação, apresentam-se as interpretações neoclássicas ao problema da demanda, comentando-se a relação da obra de Keynes com a tradição marshalliana. A última seção avalia a teoria neoclássica do produto real sob condições cíclicas e introduz a versão de Keynes para o equilíbrio agregado definido pelas propensões a gastar e a investir, além de indicar o componente de fragilidade da leitura marshalliana de sua estrutura teórica. Por fim, comenta-se a contribuição de Keynes ao conhecimento econômico da época perante a escola clássica e os hereges.

Utilização de ultrassom na conservação de suco de laranja : efeito sobre características físico-químicas, enzimáticas, microbiológicas e sensoriais

O consumo de suco de frutas vem aumentando no Brasil. Entre 2002 e 2009 o consumo de sucos, sejam eles concentrados, em pó, sucos ou néctares, aumentou em 21%. Devido ao seu sabor agradável e doce, e ao seu valor nutricional, o suco de laranja é o suco mais comum fabricado pela indústria de processamento de bebidas. Diversos fatores podem afetar a qualidade do suco de laranja. A microbiota típica presente no suco de laranja pode ser proveniente de várias etapas de sua produção. Em relação às enzimas, a pectinametilesterase (PME) é a principal causadora de alterações em suco laranja. A pasteurização e a esterilização comercial são os métodos de conservação mais comuns utilizados para inativar enzimas e micro-organismos, porém podem causar efeitos adversos em relação às características sensoriais (cor, sabor, aroma, e outros) dos produtos. A tecnologia de ultrassom vem sendo estudada recentemente como uma forma de conservar os alimentos sem causar efeitos indesejáveis como os provocados pelos tratamentos térmicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a utilização da tecnologia de ultrassom e de ultrassom aliado a temperaturas brandas, como forma de conservar suco de laranja. Para isto, foram analisadas a contagem de mesófilos totais e bolores e leveduras, a atividade da pectinametilesterase, o teor de vitamina C, a cor, o pH, o teor de sólidos solúveis e a estabilidade em relação à turbidez. Ainda, avaliou-se a aceitação sensorial de suco de laranja submetido à termossonicação. Os resultados foram comparados com os obtidos para o suco natural e o suco pasteurizado. Utilizou-se um ultrassom de 40 kHz, associado às temperaturas de 25 ºC, 30 ºC, 40 ºC, 50 ºC e 60 ºC durante 10 minutos. Os tratamentos utilizando ultrassom a 50 ºC e 60 ºC foram capazes de reduzir a contagem de bolores e leveduras e de mesófilos totais, apresentando uma redução de 3 ciclos logarítmicos. Resultado similar foi encontrado quando realizado o tratamento térmico a 90 ºC por 30 segundos. Observou-se que a aplicação da termossonicação permitiu uma redução significativa na atividade de PME e uma menor perda de vitamina C. O tratamento que apresentou melhor redução na atividade de PME foi utilizando ultrassom 40 kHz com temperatura de 60 ºC. Em relação ao ácido ascórbico, quanto menor a temperatura utilizada em conjunto com a sonicação, menor foi a perda deste composto. O teor de sólidos solúveis, o pH e a cor do suco não foram alterados ao longo do processamento. Avaliando a aceitabilidade do suco, verificou-se que a cor não foi influenciada por nenhum tratamento. Em relação ao aroma, sabor e aceitação global o suco submetido a termossonicação obteve aceitação sensorial superior à encontrada para o suco pasteurizado. Concluiu-se então que a utilização da termossonicação como uma forma de conservação para suco de laranja é viável.

Efeito da adição de óleo essencial de pimenta rosa (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi) microencapsulado em queijo minas frescal

A pimenta rosa é o fruto da aroeira (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi), uma planta nativa do Brasil. A extração e caracterização do seu óleo essencial viabiliza a sua utilização industrial. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da adição de óleo essencial de pimenta rosa em queijo Minas Frescal . Foram identificados 95,36% dos constituintes do óleo essencial, sendo o δ-careno-3 o componente majoritário. O óleo essencial de pimenta rosa apresentou características antioxidante (2,53 ± 0,28 μmols de trolox por mL de óleo) e antimicrobiana para o desenvolvimento de Staphylococcus aureus. Foi observado, no teste de difusão em ágar, a formação do halo de inibição de 1,35 ± 0,32 cm, e na análise de concentração inibitória mínima, o valor de 3,13%. O óleo essencial é sensível à degradação no meio em que se encontra, portanto necessita de processos tecnológicos para assegurar sua ação. Para proteger o óleo essencial foi realizada a microencapsulação por meio da secagem por spray dryer. O óleo foi microencapsulado utilizando três formulações com diferentes concentrações de goma arábica, maltodextrina e amido modificado como papel de parede. As microcápsulas obtidas foram analisadas quanto às suas características físico-químicas e morfológicas e foi selecionada uma formulação para posterior adição ao queijo Minas Frescal. A formulação com 5% de amido modificado, 10% de maltodextrina e 5% de goma arábica foi selecionada. Para definição da concentração de óleo essencial que foi utilzada no queijo, foi realizado teste sensorial de ordenação-preferência, visto que a concentração inibitória mínima (3,13%) era muito alta para ser utilizada nos queijos. A formulação com 0,01% de óleo essencial foi a preferida e utilizada para fabricação dos queijos. Foram elaborados e caracterizados os queijos controle (CO) e o queijo com adição das microcápsulas de óleo essencial de pimenta rosa (OEPR). Em relação às características físico-químicas, os queijos CO e OEPR só apresentaram diferença significativa em relação à umidade (P= 0,0021; α=0,05). O queijo OEPR teve boa aceitação sensorial com média de aceitação global de 7,6 ± 0,97, não apresentando diferença significativa, ao nível de 95% de confiança, do queijo controle (7,6 ± 1,18). Para avaliar a capacidade do óleo essencial de pimenta rosa microencapsulado em inibir o desenvolvimento de S. aureus, foram inoculadas nos queijos CO e OEPR concentrações iniciais de 106 UFG.g. Os queijos foram armazenados em BOD à temperatura de 4 ± 1 °C até realização das análises, que ocorreram nos tempos: 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 e 30 dias. Houve redução de 1,53 ciclos Log no queijo adicionado de óleo essencial de pimenta rosa. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, conclui-se que o óleo essencial de pimenta rosa é uma alternativa viável de utilização em queijo Minas Frescal , devido ao seu potencial antioxidante, antimicrobiano e à sua aceitação sensorial.