Production of a broad specificity antibody for the development and validation of an optical SPR screening method for free and intracellular microcystins and nodularin in cyanobacteria cultures

A highly sensitive broad specificity monoclonal antibody was produced and characterised for microcystin detection through the development of a rapid surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical biosensor based immunoassay. The antibody displayed the following cross-reactivity: MC-LR 100%; MC-RR 108%; MC-YR 68%; MC-LA 69%; MC-LW 71%; MC-LF 68%; and Nodularin 94%. Microcystin-LR was covalently attached to a CM5 chip and with the monoclonal antibody was employed in a competitive 4min injection assay to detect total microcystins in water samples below the WHO recommended limit (1µg/L). A 'total microcystin' level was determined by measuring free and intracellular concentrations in cyanobacterial culture samples as this toxin is an endotoxin. Glass bead beating was used to lyse the cells as a rapid extraction procedure. This method was validated according to European Commission Decision 96/23/EC criteria. The method was proven to measure intracellular microcystin levels, the main source of the toxin, which often goes undetected by other analytical procedures and is advantageous in that it can be used for the monitoring of blooms to provide an early warning of toxicity. It was shown to be repeatable and reproducible, with recoveries from spiked samples ranging from 74 to 123%, and had % CVs below 10% for intra-assay analysis and 15% for inter-assay analysis. The detection capability of the assay was calculated as 0.5ng/mL for extracellular toxins and 0.05ng/mL for intracellular microcystins. A comparison of the SPR method with LC-MS/MS was achieved by testing six Microcystis aeruginosa cultures and this study yielded a correlation R(2) value of 0.9989.

Multi-detection method for five common microalgal toxins based on the use of microspheres coupled to a flow-cytometry system

Freshwater and brackish microalgal toxins, such as microcystins, cylindrospermopsins, paralytic toxins, anatoxins or other neurotoxins are produced during the overgrowth of certain phytoplankton and benthic cyanobacteria, which includes either prokaryotic or eukaryotic microalgae. Although, further studies are necessary to define the biological role of these toxins, at least some of them are known to be poisonous to humans and wildlife due to their occurrence in these aquatic systems. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established as provisional recommended limit 1 μg of microcystin-LR per liter of drinking water. In this work we present a microsphere-based multi-detection method for five classes of freshwater and brackish toxins: microcystin-LR (MC-LR), cylindrospermopsin (CYN), anatoxin-a (ANA-a), saxitoxin (STX) and domoic acid (DA). Five inhibition assays were developed using different binding proteins and microsphere classes coupled to a flow-cytometry Luminex system. Then, assays were combined in one method for the simultaneous detection of the toxins. The IC₅₀'s using this method were 1.9 ± 0.1 μg L⁻¹ MC-LR, 1.3 ± 0.1 μg L⁻¹ CYN, 61 ± 4 μg L⁻¹ ANA-a, 5.4 ± 0.4 μg L⁻¹ STX and 4.9 ± 0.9 μg L⁻¹ DA. Lyophilized cyanobacterial culture samples were extracted using a simple procedure and analyzed by the Luminex method and by UPLC–IT-TOF-MS. Similar quantification was obtained by both methods for all toxins except for ANA-a, whereby the estimated content was lower when using UPLC–IT-TOF-MS. Therefore, this newly developed multiplexed detection method provides a rapid, simple, semi-quantitative screening tool for the simultaneous detection of five environmentally important freshwater and brackish toxins, in buffer and cyanobacterial extracts.

A Continuous Time Markov Chain Based Sequential Analytical Approach for Composite Power System Reliability Assessment

This paper proposes a continuous time Markov chain (CTMC) based sequential analytical approach for composite generation and transmission systems reliability assessment. The basic idea is to construct a CTMC model for the composite system. Based on this model, sequential analyses are performed. Various kinds of reliability indices can be obtained, including expectation, variance, frequency, duration and probability distribution. In order to reduce the dimension of the state space, traditional CTMC modeling approach is modified by merging all high order contingencies into a single state, which can be calculated by Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Then a state mergence technique is developed to integrate all normal states to further reduce the dimension of the CTMC model. Moreover, a time discretization method is presented for the CTMC model calculation. Case studies are performed on the RBTS and a modified IEEE 300-bus test system. The results indicate that sequential reliability assessment can be performed by the proposed approach. Comparing with the traditional sequential Monte Carlo simulation method, the proposed method is more efficient, especially in small scale or very reliable power systems.

The Reliability of the Arc-Length Method in the Analysis of Mode-Jumping Problems

The Arc-Length Method is a solution procedure that enables a generic non-linear problem to pass limit points. Some examples are provided of mode-jumping problems solutions using a commercial nite element package, and other investigations are carried out on a simple structure of which the numerical solution can be compared with an analytical one. It is shown that Arc-Length Method is not reliable when bifurcations are present in the primary equilibrium path; also the presence of very sharp snap-backs or special boundary conditions may cause convergence diÆculty at limit points. An improvement to the predictor used in the incremental procedure is suggested, together with a reliable criteria for selecting either solution of the quadratic arc-length constraint. The gap that is sometimes observed between the experimantal load level of mode-jumping and its arc-length prediction is explained through an example.

Analytical methods to study fate of organic pollutants in environment

Environmental transport of pollutants comprises distinct processes such as volatilization, leaching and surface runoff. Sorption is one of the most important phenomena that affects leaching, and thus the fate of hydrophobic organic pollutants in soils and also control their distribution in the soil/water environment. The work developed focuses the optimization of analytical techniques for monitoring the sorption behaviour of organic pollutants, 17α- ethinylestradiol (EE2) and atrazine, and their fate in aqueous environment. Initially, the development of several analytical techniques, such as micellar electrokinetic chromatography, spectral deconvolution, using UV-Vis and fluorescence spectroscopy, and also enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was performed. Optimization, method performance and recovery tests are described and results discussed. Moreover, in order to evaluate the applicability of the previously optimized method, atrazine and EE2 sorption to soil samples was performed. The work developed provide several options, in terms of methodology to follow sorption of atrazine onto soils, however the choice depends on the laboratory conditions and on the analyst preferences. The advantages and disadvantages of each methodology should be evaluated first. The second part of this work consisted in the sorption behaviour study of those two different hydrophobic organic pollutants onto different soil samples. Soil organic matter chemical characterization, being essential to understand the binding mechanism responsible for the interactions, was made. The results of atrazine binding to organic matter pointed out that carboxyl units and aromaticrich organic matter are the most efficient binding agents for atrazine. EE2 adsorbs strongly to soil organic matter and is mainly stabilized by hydrophobic interactions, through aromatic nuclei face to face with surface and/or another EE2 molecule association. Farmyard manure soil contains higher aromatic and carboxyl units, indicating that this type of manure can be effectively used to minimize the residual toxicity of EE2 and atrazine present in soils, increasing the sorption and reducing leaching onto water resources. Since the final destination of organic pollutants can be ground, surface and/or waste water, atrazine and 17α-ethinylestradiol were quantified in several water samples.

Nanocomposites for SERS : synthesis, optical and analytical studies

Esta tese descreve diversas estratégias preparativas assim como estudos de caracterização de nanocompósitos e outras nanoestruturas, para a análise em espectroscopia de Raman com intensificação por superfície (SERS). Em particular foi estudada a incorporação de nanopartículas (NPs) metálicas de Ag e Au em matrizes poliméricas visando avaliar o potencial destes materiais como novos substratos para SERS na deteção de moléculas. O primeiro capítulo consiste numa revisão bibliográfica, onde é destacado o desenvolvimento de novos substratos para SERS utilizando nomeadamente nanopartículas de Ag, Au e Cu. Numa primeira fase, esta secção apresenta uma breve descrição sobre as propriedades plasmónicas dos metais utilizados e alguns conceitos básicos de espectroscopia de difusão de Raman. Posteriormente, descreve-se em mais detalhe o efeito de SERS, revendo-se sobretudo a química de materiais descrita em trabalhos recentes tendo em conta a sua utilização como novas plataformas para análise química por SERS. O capítulo 2 descreve a síntese e caracterização de nanocompósitos de poli(acrilato de butilo) obtidos através de polimerização in situ por miniemulsão na presença de nanopartículas de Ag. Os nanocompósitos Ag/PtBA foram investigados como novos substratos de SERS visando o desenvolvimento de novas plataformas versáteis para deteção molecular. Estudos como o efeito da temperatura, pH e pressão foram investigados, visando a compreensão do efeito da matriz polimérica na difusão/adsorção do analito (ácido tiossalicílico) na superfície metálica. No capítulo 3, os nanocompósitos de Ag/PtBA descritos anteriormente foram investigados detalhadamente como substratos para bio-deteção em SERS, usando a adenina como analito modelo. Os nanocompósitos foram submetidos a vários tratamentos pré-analíticos para a bio-deteção da adenina. Foram realizadas experiências nos sistemas Ag/PtBA de modo a obter informação sobre o efeito do pH na deteção deste analito em soluções aquosas diluídas. Os nanocompósitos poliméricos obtidos apresentam a vantagem de poderem ser processados utilizando tecnologia disponível. Pelo que o estudo das suas propriedades térmicas é especialmente relevante. Assim, a influência da incorporação de NPs inorgânicas na temperatura de transição vítrea (Tg) do polímero PtBA foi investigada por meio de calorimetria diferencial de varrimento (DSC) e os resultados são apresentados no capítulo 4. Estes estudos descrevem efeitos na Tg do PtBA quando analisado em nanocompósitos obtidos por diferentes métodos (métodos ex situ e in situ), contendo nanopartículas metálicas com diferentes distribuições de tamanho e presentes em quantidade variável na matriz polimérica. Estes estudos possibilitaram relacionar a influência das NPs metálicas na mobilidade das cadeias poliméricas com as propriedades térmicas observadas. O capítulo 5 descreve a preparação e caracterização de materiais compósitos de base polimérica (PtBA) e NPs de Au com morfologia de bastonetes (NRs). Estes materiais foram investigados como substratos para SERS tendo originado um bom sinal de SERS na análise de 2-2’-ditiodipiridina. Investigouse igualmente o efeito da variação da morfologia das NPs metálicas (esferas e bastonetes), a razão de aspecto (R.A.) dos bastonetes e o tipo de matriz polimérica (PtBA e PnBA) no sinal de SERS. No capítulo 6 é descrita a utilização da técnica de SERS como método alternativo para a monitorização de alterações morfológicas de coloides de NRs de Au. Os NRs de Au foram recolhidos em diferentes fases de oxidação promovida pela presença de K2S2O8 e a sua sensibilidade como substratos de SERS foi avaliada utilizando o anião dietilditiocarbamato (DTC) como analito modelo. Os estudos foram realizados utilizando as linhas de excitação a 1064 nm e 633 nm. Este estudo demonstrou que a sensibilidade dos NRs de Au como substratos de SERS diminui à medida que a sua R.A. diminui devido à competitividade do CTAB (estabilizante) e o DTC pela superfície dos NRs. É de salientar que este processo é acompanhado por um diferente comportamento em termos de adsorção dos dois tautómeros do DTC à superfície do metal. O capítulo 7 introduz um novo tipo de compósitos para SERS, utilizando matrizes biopoliméricas. Assim, descreve-se a preparação e caracterização de nanocompósitos de carragenano e NPs de Ag. Nesta secção é avaliada a utilização destes materiais como novos substratos para a análise em SERS, utilizando a 2-2’-ditiodipiridina como molécula modelo. Descrevem-se estudos pioneiros que procuram relacionar a dependência do sinal de SERS com a força do gel. Para tal, realizou-se um estudo sistemático aos nanobiocompósitos usados como substratos de SERS em diferentes condições analíticas e investigaram-se as suas propriedades reológicas. No capitulo 8 é descrita a investigação de nanocompósitos de Ag/Gelatina como substratos para SERS, utilizando o anião dietilditiocarbamato como analito modelo. Realizaram-se várias experiências para correlacionar a variação da força do gel com o aumento do sinal de SERS bem como a diferente adsorção dos dois tautómeros do DTC à superfície do metal. Ao longo desta dissertação são apresentados metodologias distintas para a preparação e obtenção de nanocompósitos com base em polímeros (sintéticos ou naturais) e NPs metálicas (Ag e Au). Esta investigação não só permitiu a síntese e estudo de novos substratos para SERS mas também a compreensão do efeito matriz/NPs metálicas no sinal de SERS e na formação de “hot spots”. Este trabalho contribui para o enriquecimento na área da Nanociência e Nanotecnologia demonstrando a eficácia e reprodutibilidade de nanocompósitos com base em polímeros como novos substratos para SERS. Embora as propriedades óticas apresentadas por estes materiais serem aqui direcionadas para a deteção molecular pela técnica de SERS, estes materiais podem ser investigados em outras área tecnológicas.

Head Space-Trap GC-MS method development and validation for the analysis of volatile organic compounds in water samples

Dissertação de Mestrado, Qualidade em Análises, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2015

Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish: evaluation of a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction method

QuEChERS method was evaluated for extraction of 16 PAHs from fish samples. For a selective measurement of the compounds, extracts were analysed by LC with fluorescence detection. The overall analytical procedure was validated by systematic recovery experiments at three levels and by using the standard reference material SRM 2977 (mussel tissue). The targeted contaminants, except naphthalene and acenaphthene, were successfully extracted from SRM 2977 with recoveries ranging from 63.5–110.0% with variation coefficients not exceeding 8%. The optimum QuEChERS conditions were the following: 5 g of homogenised fish sample, 10 mL of ACN, agitation performed by vortex during 3 min. Quantification limits ranging from 0.12– 1.90 ng/g wet weight (0.30–4.70 µg/L) were obtained. The optimized methodology was applied to assess the safety concerning PAHs contents of horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus), chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and farmed seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Although benzo(a)pyrene, the marker used for evaluating the carcinogenic risk of PAHs in food, was not detected in the analysed samples (89 individuals corresponding to 27 homogenized samples), the overall mean concentration ranged from 2.52 l 1.20 ng/g in horse mackerel to 14.6 ± 2.8 ng/ g in farmed seabass. Significant differences were found between the mean PAHs concentrations of the four groups.

Development of electrochemical methods for determination of tramadol - analytical application to pharmaceutical dosage forms

A square-wave voltammetric (SWV) method and a flow injection analysis system with amperometric detection were developed for the determination of tramadol hydrochloride. The SWV method enables the determination of tramadol over the concentration range of 15-75 µM with a detection limit of 2.2 µM. Tramadol could be determined in concentrations between 9 and 50 µM at a sampling rate of 90 h-1, with a detection limit of 1.7 µM using the flow injection system. The electrochemical methods developed were successfully applied to the determination of tramadol in pharmaceutical dosage forms, without any pre-treatment of the samples. Recovery trials were performed to assess the accuracy of the results; the values were between 97 and 102% for both methods.

Development and validation of a novel method for the analysis of chlorinated pesticides in soils using microwave-assisted extraction–headspace solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

A new procedure for determining eleven organochlorine pesticides in soils using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) is described. The studied pesticides consisted of mirex, α- and γ-chlordane, p,p’-DDT, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide isomer A, γ-hexachlorocyclohexane, dieldrin, endrin, aldrine and hexachlorobenzene. The HS-SPME was optimized for the most important parameters such as extraction time, sample volume and temperature. The present analytical procedure requires a reduced volume of organic solvents and avoids the need for extract clean-up steps. For optimized conditions the limits of detection for the method ranged from 0.02 to 3.6 ng/g, intermediate precision ranged from 14 to 36% (as CV%), and the recovery from 8 up to 51%. The proposed methodology can be used in the rapid screening of soil for the presence of the selected pesticides, and was applied to landfill soil samples.

Optimization of HS-SPME analytical conditions using factorial design for trihalomethanes determination in swimming pool water samples

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are widely referred and studied as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The THMs that are most commonly detected are chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), chlorodibromomethane (CDBM), and bromoform (TBM). Several studies regarding the determination of THMs in swimming pool water and air samples have been published. This paper reviews the most recent work in this field, with a special focus on water and air sampling, sample preparation and analytical determination methods. An experimental study has been developed in order to optimize the headspace solid-phasemicroextraction (HS-SPME) conditions of TCM, BDCM, CDBM and TBM from water samples using a 23 factorial design. An extraction temperature of 45 °C, for 25min, and a desorption time of 5 min were found to be the best conditions. Analysis was performed by gas chromatography with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The method was successfully applied to a set of 27 swimming pool water samples collected in the Oporto area (Portugal). TCM was the only THM detected with levels between 4.5 and 406.5 μg L−1. Four of the samples exceeded the guideline value for total THMs in swimming pool water (100 μgL−1) indicated by the Portuguese Health Authority.

Disposable immunosensor using a simple method for oriented antibody immobilization for label-free real-time detection of an oxidative stress biomarker implicated in cancer diseases

This work proposes a novel approach for a suitable orientation of antibodies (Ab) on an immunosensing platform, applied here to the determination of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8OHdG), a biomarker of oxidative stress that has been associated to chronic diseases, such as cancer. The anti-8OHdG was bound to an amine modified gold support through its Fc region after activation of its carboxylic functions. Non-oriented approaches of Ab binding to the platform were tested in parallel, in order to show that the presented methodology favored Ab/Ag affinity and immunodetection of the antigen. The immunosensor design was evaluated by quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation, atomic force microscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and square-wave voltammetry. EIS was also a suitable technique to follow the analytical behavior of the device against 8OHdG. The affinity binding between 8OHdG and the antibody immobilized in the gold modified platform increased the charge transfer resistance across the electrochemical set-up. The observed behavior was linear from 0.02 to 7.0 ng/mL of 8OHdG concentrations. The interference from glucose, urea and creatinine was found negligible. An attempt of application to synthetic samples was also successfully conducted. Overall, the presented approach enabled the production of suitably oriented Abs over a gold platform by means of a much simpler process than other oriented-Ab binding approaches described in the literature, as far as we know, and was successful in terms of analytical features and sample application.

Rapid automated method for on-site determination of sulfadiazine in fish farming: a stainless steel veterinary syringe coated with a selective membrane of PVC serving as a potentiometric detector in a flow-injection-analysis system

Sulfadiazine is an antibiotic of the sulfonamide group and is used as a veterinary drug in fish farming. Monitoring it in the tanks is fundamental to control the applied doses and avoid environmental dissemination. Pursuing this goal, we included a novel potentiometric design in a flow-injection assembly. The electrode body was a stainless steel needle veterinary syringe of 0.8-mm inner diameter. A selective membrane of PVC acted as a sensory surface. Its composition, the length of the electrode, and other flow variables were optimized. The best performance was obtained for sensors of 1.5-cm length and a membrane composition of 33% PVC, 66% onitrophenyloctyl ether, 1% ion exchanger, and a small amount of a cationic additive. It exhibited Nernstian slopes of 61.0 mV decade-1 down to 1.0×10-5 mol L-1, with a limit of detection of 3.1×10-6 mol L-1 in flowing media. All necessary pH/ionic strength adjustments were performed online by merging the sample plug with a buffer carrier of 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid, pH 4.9. The sensor exhibited the advantages of a fast response time (less than 15 s), long operational lifetime (60 days), and good selectivity for chloride, nitrite, acetate, tartrate, citrate, and ascorbate. The flow setup was successfully applied to the analysis of aquaculture waters. The analytical results were validated against those obtained with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry procedures. The sampling rate was about 84 samples per hour and recoveries ranged from 95.9 to 106.9%.

A nanopore-based stochastic detection method: Single molecule characterisation of nanoparticles using ()- hemolysin

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Chemistry.