Networks cities and ecological habitats

As the world’s rural populations continue to migrate from farmland to sprawling cities, transport networks form an impenetrable maze within which monocultures of urban form erupt from the spaces in‐between. These urban monocultures are as problematic to human activity in cities as cropping monocultures are to ecosystems in regional landscapes. In China, the speed of urbanisation is exacerbating the production of mono‐functional private and public spaces. Edges are tightly controlled. Barriers and management practices at these boundaries are discouraging the formation of new synergistic relationships, critical in the long‐term stability of ecosystems that host urban habitats. Some urban planners, engineers, urban designers, architects and landscape architects have recognised these shortcomings in contemporary Chinese cities. The ideology of sustainability, while critically debated, is bringing together thinking people in these and other professions under the umbrella of an ecological ethic. This essay aims to apply landscape ecology theory, a conceptual framework used by many professionals involved in land development processes, to a concept being developed by BAU International called Networks Cities: a city with its various land uses arranged in nets of continuity, adjacency, and superposition. It will consider six lesser‐known concepts in relation to creating enhanced human activity along (un)structured edges between proposed nets and suggest new frontiers that might be challenged in an eco‐city. Ecological theory suggests that sustaining biodiversity in regions and landscapes depends on habitat distribution patterns. Flora and fauna biologists have long studied edge habitats and have been confounded by the paradox that maximising the breadth of edges is detrimental to specialist species but favourable to generalist species. Generalist species of plants and animals tolerate frequent change in the landscape, frequenting two or more habitats for their survival. Specialist species are less tolerant of change, having specific habitat requirements during their life cycle. Protecting species richness then may be at odds with increasing mixed habitats or mixed‐use zones that are dynamic places where diverse activities occur. Forman (1995) in his book Land Mosaics however argues that these two objectives of land use management are entirely compatible. He postulates that an edge may be comprised of many small patches, corridors or convoluting boundaries of large patches. Many ecocentrists now consider humans to be just another species inhabiting the ecological environments of our cities. Hence habitat distribution theory may be useful in planning and designing better human habitats in a rapidly urbanising context like China. In less‐constructed environments, boundaries and edges provide important opportunities for the movement of multi‐habitat species into, along and from adjacent land use areas. For instance, invasive plants may escape into a national park from domestic gardens while wildlife may forage on garden plants in adjoining residential areas. It is at these interfaces that human interactions too flow backward and forward between land types. Spray applications of substances by farmers on cropland may disturb neighbouring homeowners while suburban residents may help themselves to farm produce on neighbouring orchards. Edge environments are some of the most dynamic and contested spaces in the landscape. Since most of us require access to at least two or three habitats diurnally, weekly, monthly or seasonally, their proximity to each other becomes critical in our attempts to improve the sustainability of our cities.

Measuring neighbourhood sustainability performance: an indexing model for Gold Coast City, Australia

The aim of this research is to develop an indexing model to evaluate sutainability performance of urban settings, in order to assess environmental impacts of urban development and to provide planning agencies an indexing model as a decision support tool to be used in curbing negative impacts of urban development. Indicator-based sustainability assessment is embraced as the method. Neigbourhood-level urban form and transport related indicators are derived from the literature by conducting a content analysis and finalised via a focus group meeting. The model is piloted on three suburbs of Gold Coast City, Australia. Final neighbourhood level sustainability index score was calculated by employing equal weighting schema. The results of the study show that indexing modelling is a reasonably practical method to measure and visualise local sustainability performance, which can be employed as an effective communication and decision making tool.

Do planning regulations matter? : a comparison of South East Queensland and South Florida

At one level the urban landscapes of South Florida and South East Queensland look quite similar. However at another level the context of planning and planning control and regulation is quite different. To understand the contextual differences between South Florida and South East Queensland, four themes will be used, some of which were based on Cullingworth and Booth. The four themes include: demography, governance, the law and regulatory philosophy. After having evaluated South Florida and South East Queensland across these four themes, we propose a framework for examining whether these differences have shaped planning outcomes and in particular, the built form.

Living through extreme weather events and natural disasters: How resilient are our high-rise high-density typologies?

The inner city Brisbane suburbs of the West End peninsula are poised for redevelopment. Located within walking distance to CBD workplaces, home to Queensland’s highest value cultural precinct, and high quality riverside parklands, there is currently a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to redevelop parts of the suburb to create a truly urban neighbourhood. According to a local community association, local residents agree and embrace the concept of high-density living, but are opposed to the high-rise urban form (12 storeys) advocated by the City’s planning authority (BCC, 2011) and would prefer to see medium-rise (5-8 storeys) medium-density built form. Brisbane experienced a major flood event which inundated the peninsula suburbs of West End in summer January 2011. The vulnerability of taller buildings to the vagaries of climate and more extreme weather events and their reliance on main electricity was exposed when power outages immediately before, during and after the flood disaster seriously limited occupants’ access and egress when elevators were disabled. Not all buildings were flooded but dwellings quickly became unliveable due to disabled air-conditioning. Some tall buildings remained uninhabitable for several weeks after the event. This paper describes an innovative design research method applied to the complex problem of resilient, sustainable neighbourhood form in subtropical cities, in which a thorough comparative analysis of a range of multiple-dwelling types has revealed the impact that government policy regarding design of the physical environment has on a community’s resilience. The outcomes advocate the role of climate-responsive design in averting the rising human capital and financial costs of natural disasters and climate change.

What makes inner city high density living attractive? Insight from residents in Brisbane, Australia

Australia’s urban form and planning has shifted from traditional individual dwellings on spacious suburban blocks towards higher density urban consolidation. Despite relatively strong market demand for inner city high density (ICHD) living, there is ongoing need to explore and understand the aspects that make this urban form liveable and sustainable. The purpose of this research is to explore the viewpoints of current ICHD residents to better understand the liveability and sustainability matters that affect their everyday experiences and perceptions of this urban form. Qualitative interviews with 24 ICHD Brisbane (Australia) residents illustrates their perceptions and experiences of liveability and the ways in which it is broadly understood within three main domains and nine key sub-concepts, including: individual dwelling (thermal comfort, natural light and balconies, noise mitigation), building complex (shared space, good neighbour protocols, environmental sustainability) and the community (transport, amenities, sense of community). Focussing on the experience of ICHD residents, this research highlights the ways in which multiple aspects of the immediate living environment, the dwelling, building complex and the community intertwine to provide residents with a liveable space. The results show that urban features that reflect current societal pressure for greater sustainability such as lower energy use are the exact same features sought by ICHD residents in determining their liveability. By highlighting the aspects current ICHD residents value most about their dwellings, buildings and communities, these findings will help inform policy-makers, planners, developers and designers as they create urban spaces and dwellings that are more liveable and sustainable.

A spatial-indexing model for measuring neighbourhood-level land-use and transport integration

Significant attention has been given in urban policy literature to the integration of land-use and transport planning and policies—with a view to curbing sprawling urban form and diminishing externalities associated with car-dependent travel patterns. By taking land-use and transport interaction into account, this debate mainly focuses on how a successful integration can contribute to societal well-being, providing efficient and balanced economic growth while accomplishing the goal of developing sustainable urban environments and communities. The integration is also a focal theme of contemporary urban development models, such as smart growth, liveable neighbourhoods, and new urbanism. Even though available planning policy options for ameliorating urban form and transport-related externalities have matured—owing to growing research and practice worldwide—there remains a lack of suitable evaluation models to reflect on the current status of urban form and travel problems or on the success of implemented integration policies. In this study we explore the applicability of indicator-based spatial indexing to assess land-use and transport integration at the neighbourhood level. For this, a spatial index is developed by a number of indicators compiled from international studies and trialled in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. The results of this modelling study reveal that it is possible to propose an effective metric to determine the success level of city plans considering their sustainability performance via composite indicator methodology. The model proved useful in demarcating areas where planning intervention is applicable, and in identifying the most suitable locations for future urban development and plan amendments. Lastly, we integrate variance-based sensitivity analysis with the spatial indexing method, and discuss the applicability of the model in other urban contexts.

Sense of home, sense of place : a morpho-typological comparative study of Florida and Queensland

Cities in the 21st century have become layered and complex systems not only in terms of physical form, but also social and cultural structure. Consolidated tools to analyze the urban environment have today to be improved including a strong interdisciplinary perspective in order to understand and manage the unprecedented complexity our cities are facing. Redevelopments, new estates, internal and external migrations are all dynamics which are deeply modifying the built environment directly or indirectly also affecting local identity, culture and social structure. This paper investigates the relationship between urban form and social behaviors, with particular attention to the perception of the built environment and its use by long term residents, recent migrants as well as tourists. A comparative study is suggested between South East Queensland and Florida; this two regions share common features such as subtropical climate, similar lifestyle, leisure cities and canal estates. Neighborhoods on the Gold and Sunshine Coasts have been designed using the communities of Florida, such as Celebration or Seaside, as models. These regions share also significant migration processes, similar social problems and high crime rates, which directly affect the local economies. Comparing Florida and SEQ could provide an understanding of different strategies adopted and how urban development and lifestyle can be managed maintaining social equity and security. This study, investigates people’s perception of built form and how this affects the use of public space. The relationship between built environment and social behaviour has been previously investigated, for example by environmental psychology; the innovation proposed by this research is to study the perception of place in leisure cities at multiple levels. Locals, migrants and tourists have different understanding of the built form in the same location; this understanding affects the use of space and the attitude to visit or avoid some precincts. The research methodology integrates traditional morpho-typological investigations with qualitative methods; data are collected in the first phase through online surveys about perception of urban forms. Findings guide then the selection of neighbourhoods to be investigated in detail through questionnaires and Nolli maps, specifying morphological regions as well as recurrent building typologies. A final phase includes interviews with selected stakeholders. Major urban projects are discussed addressing how they are used and perceived by locals, migrants or tourists; the comparison between SEQ and Florida allows the identification of strategies to address migration issues in both regions with particular attention to urban form and placemaking dynamics.

Built environment impacts on walking for transport in Brisbane, Australia

This study examines the association between urban form and walking for transport in Brisbane, Australia based on both panel and cross-sectional data. Cross-sectional data are used to determine whether urban form was associated with walking for transport in 2011. Panel data are used to evaluate whether changes in the built environment altered walking behaviour between 2009 and 2011. Results from the cross-sectional data suggest that individuals are significantly more likely to be walkers if they live in an area with a well-connected street network and an accessible train station. The longitudinal analysis confirms these relationships; there also was however, a significant impact of travel attitudes and perceptions on walking behaviour. The findings suggest that the built environment continues to be an important factor to encourage walking; however, interventions are also required to change social norms in order to increase the receptiveness for and participation in walking.

Morphogenetic analysis of architectural elements within the townscape

When a new form is inserted in an existing townscape, its consonance within the urban fabric is dependent on the level of attention paid to the evaluation and management of its architectural elements. However, despite the established principles and methods of urban morphology that enable the systematic analysis of the built environment, a formula for ensuring that new development relates to its context so as to achieve congruent outcomes is still lacking. This paper proposes a new method of evaluating and measuring architectural elements within evolving urban forms, with particular emphasis on a three-dimensional study of buildings. In a case study, detailed mapping of both current and past forms provides the basis for evincing predominant characteristics that have changed over time. Using this method, it is possible to demonstrate objectively how the townscape has been affected through changes in its architectural configuration.

Proceedings of the 3rd International Subtropical Cities Conference 2011 Subtropical Cities: Subtropical Urbanism -Beyond Climate Change

Climate has been, throughout modern history, a primary attribute for attracting residents to the “Sunshine States” of Florida (USA) and Queensland (Australia). The first major group of settlers capitalized on the winter growing season to support a year-­‐round agricultural economy. As these economies developed, the climate attracted tourism and retirement industries. Yet as Florida and Queensland have blossomed under beneficial climates, the stresses acting on the natural environment are exacting a toll. Southeast Florida and eastern Queensland are among the most vulnerable coastal metropolitan areas in the world. In these places the certainty of sea level rise is measurable with impacts, empirically observable, that will continue to increase regardless of any climate change mitigation.1 The cities of the subtropics share a series of paradoxes relating to climate, resources, environment, and culture. As the subtropical climate entices new residents and visitors there are increasing costs associated with urban infrastructure and the ravages of violent weather. The carefree lifestyle of subtropical cities is increasingly dependent on scarce water and energy resources and the flow of tangible goods that support a trade economy. The natural environment is no longer exploitable as the survival of the human environment is contingent upon the ability of natural ecosystems to absorb the impact of human actions. The quality of subtropical living is challenged by the mounting pressures of population growth and rapid urbanization yet urban form and contemporary building design fail to take advantage of the subtropical zone’s natural attributes of abundant sunshine, cooling breezes and warm temperatures. Yet, by building a global network of local knowledge, subtropical cities like Brisbane, the City of Gold Coast and Fort Lauderdale, are confidently leading the way with innovative and inventive solutions for building resiliency and adaptation to climate change. The Centre for Subtropical Design at Queensland University of Technology organized the first international Subtropical Cities conference in Brisbane, Australia, where the “fault-­‐lines” of subtropical cities at breaking points were revealed. The second conference, held in 2008, shed a more optimistic light with the theme "From fault-­‐lines to sight-­‐lines -­‐ subtropical urbanism in 20-­‐20" highlighting the leadership exemplified in the vitality of small and large works from around the subtropical world. Yet beyond these isolated local actions the need for more cooperation and collaboration was identified as the key to moving beyond the problems of the present and foreseeable future. The spirit of leadership and collaboration has taken on new force, as two institutions from opposite sides of the globe joined together to host the 3rd international conference Subtropical Cities 2011 -­‐ Subtropical Urbanism: Beyond Climate Change. The collaboration between Florida Atlantic University and the Queensland University of Technology to host this conference, for the first time in the United States, forges a new direction in international cooperative research to address urban design solutions that support sustainable behaviours, resiliency and adaptation to sea level rise, green house gas (GHG) reduction, and climate change research in the areas of architecture and urban design, planning, and public policy. With southeast Queensland and southern Florida as contributors to this global effort among subtropical urban regions that share similar challenges, opportunities, and vulnerabilities our mutual aim is to advance the development and application of local knowledge to the global problems we share. The conference attracted over 150 participants from four continents. Presentations by authors were organized into three sub-­‐themes: Cultural/Place Identity, Environment and Ecology, and Social Economics. Each of the 22 papers presented underwent a double-­‐blind peer review by a panel of international experts among the disciplines and research areas represented. The Centre for Subtropical Design at the Queensland University of Technology is leading Australia in innovative environmental design with a multi-­‐disciplinary focus on creating places that are ‘at home’ in the warm humid subtropics. The Broward Community Design Collaborative at Florida Atlantic University's College for Design and Social Inquiry has built an interdisciplinary collaboration that is unique in the United States among the units of Architecture, Urban and Regional Planning, Social Work, Public Administration, together with the College of Engineering and Computer Science, the College of Science, and the Center for Environmental Studies, to engage in funded action research through design inquiry to solve the problems of development for urban resiliency and environmental sustainment. As we move beyond debates about climate change -­‐ now acting upon us -­‐ the subtropical urban regions of the world will continue to convene to demonstrate the power of local knowledge against global forces, thereby inspiring us as we work toward everyday engagement and action that can make our cities more livable, equitable, and green.

Defining the InstaBooth: Facilitating debate and content creation from situated users

Through ubiquitous computing and location-based social media, information is spreading outside the traditional domains of home and work into the urban environment. Digital technologies have changed the way people relate to the urban form supporting discussion on multiple levels, allowing more citizens to be heard in new ways (Fredericks et al. 2013; Houghton et al. 2014; Caldwell et al. 2013). Face-to-face and digitally mediated discussions, facilitated by tangible and hybrid interaction, such as multi-touch screens and media façades, are initiated through a telephone booth inspired portable structure: The InstaBooth. The InstaBooth prototype employs a multidisciplinary approach to engage local communities in a situated debate on the future of their urban environment. With it, we capture citizens’ past stories and opinions on the use and design of public places. The way public consultations are currently done often engages only a section of the population involved in a proposed development; the more vocal citizens are not necessarily the more representative of the communities (Jenkins 2006). Alternative ways to engage urban dwellers in the debate about the built environment are explored at the moment, including the use of social media or online tools (Foth 2009). This project fosters innovation by providing pathways for communities to participate in the decision making process that informs the urban form. The InstaBooth promotes dialogue and mediation between a bottom-up and a top-down approach to urban design, with the aim of promoting community connectedness with the urban environment. The InstaBooth provides an engagement and discussion platform that leverages a number of locally developed display and interaction technologies in order to facilitate a dialogue of ideas and commentary. The InstaBooth combines multiple interaction techniques into a hybrid (digital and analogue) media space. Through the InstaBooth, urban design and architectural proposals are displayed encouraging commentary from visitors. Inside the InstaBooth, visitors can activate a multi-touch screen in order to browse media, write a note, or draw a picture to provide feedback. The purpose of the InstaBooth is to engage with a broader section of society, including those who are often marginalised. The specific design of the internal and external interfaces, the mutual relationship between these interfaces with regards to information display and interaction, and the question how visitors can engage with the system, are part of the research agenda of the project.

KAUPPAKESKUS OSANA KESTÄVÄÄ KAUPUNKIRAKENNETTA - Kauppakeskustoimijoiden näkemyksiä kauppakeskusten sijoittumisen kestävyydestä

The location and location guidance of shopping centers has been under much public discussion in Finland in the recent years. The Ministry of the Environment has expressed concern over the sustainability of ‘out-of-town’ shopping centers. Shopping centers outside the urban form are seen to cause more traffic, thus contributing to climate change by increasing carbon dioxide emissions. The sustainability of urban form has been researched in several studies and factors like urban density, public transport and a comfortable living environment were found to be the most important. This study presents the views of Finnish shopping center stakeholders on the sustainability of shopping center locations. These views were gathered using focus groups. Stakeholders included managers, consultants, investors, developers, architects and tenants of shopping centers and public sector actors dealing with shopping industry. As one theme in the discussions, participants were asked to present their views on the sustainability of shopping centers’ current locations. The study is part of the Aalto University of Technology KOKKKA project, which has its main focus upon shopping centers and sustainability. Shopping centers were seen to affect sustainability mainly through their location. A sustainable location was thought of as one that involved locating in an economically successful place, inside the urban form. A sustainable location was also easily accessible, with good access via public transport and the shopping center also had to create comfortable living environment in its surroundings. The views of the focus groups participants are similar to the views in sustainable urban structure theories and, inter alia, Finland’s national sustainable development strategy.

Helsingin metropolialueen maisemaekologiset muutokset vuosina 1955-2009

Landscape is shaped by natural environment and increasingly by human activity. In landscape ecology, the concept of landscape can be defined as a kilometre-scale mosaic formed by different land-use types. In Helsinki Metropolitan Region, the landscape change caused by urbanization has accelerated after the 1950s. Prior to that, the landscape of the region was mainly only shaped by agriculture. The goal of this study was in addition to describing the landscape change to discuss the factors impacting the landscape change and evaluate thelandscape ecological impacts of the change. Three study areas at different distances from Helsinki city centre were chosen in order to look at the landscape change. Study areas were Malmi, Espoo and Mäntsälä regions representing different parts of the urban-to-rural gradient in 1955, 1975, 1990 and 2009. Land-use of the maps was then digitized into five classes: agricultural lands, semi-natural grasslands, built areas, waters and others using GIS methods. First, landscape change was studied using landscape ecological indices. Indices used were PLAND i.e. the proportions of the different land-use types in the landscape; MPS, SHEI and SHDI which describe fragmentation and heterogeneity of the landscape; and MSI and ED which are measures of patch shape. Second, landscape change was studied statistically in relation to topography, soil and urban structure of the study areas. Indicators used concerning urban structure were number of residents, car ownership and travel-related zones of urban form which indicate the degree of urban sprawl within the study areas. For the statistical analyses, each of the 9.25 x 9.25 km sized study areas was further divided into grids with resolution of 0.25 x 0.25 kilometres. Third, the changes in the green structure of the study areas were evaluated. The landscape change reflected by the proportions of the land-use types was the most notable in Malmi area where a large amount of agricultural land was developed from 1955 to 2009. The proportion of semi-natural grasslands also showed an interesting pattern in relation to urbanization. When urbanization started, a great number of agricultural lands were abandoned and turned into semi-natural grasslands but as the urbanization accelerated, the number of semi-natural grasslands started to decline because of urban densification. Landscape fragmentation and heterogeneity were the most widespread in Espoo study area which is not only because of the great differences in relative heights within the region but also its location in the rural-urban fringe. According to the results, urbanization induced agricultural lands to be more regular in shape both spatially and temporally whereas for built areas and semi-natural grasslands the impact of urbanization was reverse. Changes in landscape were the most insignificant in the most rural study area Mäntsälä. In Mäntsälä, built area per resident showed the greatest values indicating a widespread urban sprawl. The values were the smallest in highly urbanized Malmi study area. Unlike other study areas, in Mäntsälä the proportion of developing land in the ecologically disadvantageous cardependent zone was on the increase. On the other hand, the green structure of the Mäntsälä study area was the most advantageous whereas Malmi study area showed the most ecologically disadvantageous structure. Considering all the landscape ecological criteria used, the landscape structure of Espoo study area proved to be the best not least because of the great heterogeneity of its landscape. Thus the study confirmed the previous results according to which landscape heterogeneity is the most significant in areas exposed to a moderate human impact.

Understanding Density in an Uneven City, Santiago de Chile: Implications for Social and Environmental Sustainability

Efforts to promote infill development and to raise densities are growing in many cities around the world as a way to encourage urban sustainability. However, in cities polarized along socio-economic lines, the benefits of densification are not so evident. The aim of this paper is to discuss some of the contradictions of densification in Santiago de Chile, a city characterized by socio-spatial disparities. To that end, we first use regression analysis to explain differences in density rates within the city. The regression analysis shows that dwelling density depends on the distance from the city center, socioeconomic conditions, and the availability of urban attributes in the area. After understanding the density profile, we discuss the implications for travel and the distribution of social infrastructures and the environmental services provided by green areas. While, at the metropolitan scale, densification may favor a more sustainable travel pattern, it should be achieved by balancing density rates and addressing spatial differences in the provision of social services and environmental amenities. We believe a metropolitan approach is essential to correct these spatial imbalances and to promote a more sustainable and socially cohesive growth pattern.

Território e identidades em trânsito no subúrbio industrial: uma análise das transformações socioeconômicas na região do Complexo do Alemão

As últimas décadas evidenciaram profundas transformações na estrutura do trabalho e emprego no cenário global. Esse movimento trouxe implicações sociais de diversas dimensões para a experiência cotidiana dos trabalhadores nas cidades industriais. A pesquisa buscou investigar se as expressões daquelas transformações socioeconômicas numa região particular da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, o Complexo do Alemão, teriam resultados sobre a configuração das identidades dos trabalhadores e o curso de um novo etos do trabalho. O Complexo do Alemão se transformou numa região de investimentos industriais até os anos 1980, quando então começa a declinar-se. As transformações ali operadas e a forma urbana assumida naquele contexto expressam mudanças sociais mais amplas que ocorreram nas últimas décadas na cidade e no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Trabalhou-se com a hipótese de que a alocação de grandes empreendimentos industriais e uma rede de médias e pequenas empresas naquela área calcadas no trabalho assalariado protegido, ora teria contribuído na construção de identidades dos trabalhadores e, de outro lado, a descentramento e esvaziamento daquele padrão teriam impactado a forma como os sujeitos constituem essas identidades mediadas pelo trabalho. Outra hipótese colocada referiu-se a possibilidade da emergência de novas concepções e aspirações profissionais e de trabalho a cimentar novos modos de organização de identidades individuais e coletivas naquela região. Foi colocado em discussão o modelo de modernidade industrial instalado no Brasil bem como o modo como o zoneamento industrial se deu na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. A pesquisa dialogou com os temas do trabalho, industrialização, reestruturação produtiva e identidades. Afora os aportes teóricos, a pesquisa lançou mão de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com trabalhadores de diversas idades que trabalharam ou ainda trabalham na região do Complexo do Alemão. Diante do ordenamento atual no mundo do trabalho, a pesquisa discutiu que mecanismos de exploração são reeditados e que em meio a isso, num jogo contraditório e dialético, os trabalhadores constroem representações sobre si e sobre a coletividade. O horizonte de um trabalho livre e protegido, em nossa modernização periférica, foi importante elemento para a construção de um imaginário operário, tendo o salário e a fábrica como uma porta de acesso para a cidadania. Por fim, mostrou-se que atualmente são postas novas institucionalidades para a questão da identidade do trabalhador; a fábrica, que antes ocupou importante lugar na região em estudo e no imaginário da população daquele território, se reveste de novas conotações.