Can publicly available webcameras and mechanical Turks be used to evaluate physical activity policy and built environment change?

Introduction: Fewer than 50% of adults and 40% of youth meet US CDC guidelines for physical activity (PA) with the built environment (BE) a culprit for limited PA. A challenge in evaluating policy and BE change is the forethought to capture a priori PA behaviors and the ability to eliminate bias in post-change environments. The present objective was to analyze existing public data feeds to quantify effectiveness of BE interventions. The Archive of Many Outdoor Scenes (AMOS) has collected 135 million images of outdoor environments from 12,000 webcams since 2006. Many of these environments have experienced BE change. Methods: One example of BE change is the addition of protected bike lanes and a bike share program in Washington, DC.Weselected an AMOS webcam that captured this change. AMOS captures a photograph from eachwebcamevery half hour.AMOScaptured the 120 webcam photographs between 0700 and 1900 during the first work week of June 2009 and the 120 photographs from the same week in 2010. We used the Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) website to crowd-source the image annotation. MTurk workers were paid US$0.01 to mark each pedestrian, cyclist and vehicle in a photograph. Each image was coded 5 unique times (n=1200). The data, counts of transportation mode, was downloaded to SPSS for analysis. Results: The number of cyclists per scene increased four-fold between 2009 and 2010 (F=36.72, p=0.002). There was no significant increase in pedestrians between the two years, however there was a significant increase in number of vehicles per scene (F=16.81, p

A physical activity intervention in a workplace setting

Physical inactivity poses a huge burden on Canada's health care system and is detrimental to the health of Canadians (Katzmarzyk & Janssen, 2004). Walking is a viable option for individuals to become physically active on a daily basis and is in fact the most commonly reported leisure time physical activity. It has been associated with many health benefits including weight loss/weight control, reduced risk of coronary artery disease and diabetes, lowered blood pressure, and improved psychological wellbeing (Brisson & Tudor-Locke, 2004). Specifically, individuals' stage of change, selfefficacy and health related quality of life (HRQL) are three psychological constructs that can be greatly improved with increased physical activity (Dishman, 1991; Penedo & Dahn, 2005; Poag & McAuley, 1992). Public health physical activity recommendations exist but many individuals find these difficult to meet due to overly busy lifestyles (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2003). Pedometers are inexpensive devices that can monitor individual bouts of walking so that the incorporation of physical activity into one's daily life is more plausible. They are also excellent tools for motivation, goalsetting, and immediate feedback (Brisson & Tudor-Locke, 2004). Since many people spend a large proportion of their time at their places of employment, workplaces have begun to be a common site for the development of physical activity interventions. These programs have been growing in popUlarity and have shown numerous benefits for both employees and employers (Voit, 2001). The purpose of the current study was to implement and evaluate the use of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention incorporating goal-setting and physical activity logs in a workplace setting, and to examine the relationship between different types of self-efficacy (task, barrier, and scheduling) and different phases of the intervention. Twenty male participants from a local steel manufacturing plant who exhibited health risk factors (e.g. hypertension, diabetes, etc.) were assigned to one of two groups (group A or group B). All participants were asked to wear pedometers on their waists, record their daily steps, set goals that were outlined on a step-tracking sheet (detennined by their baseline number of steps), and keep track of their work days, wakelbed time, sedentary time, and time spent doing other physical activity. Group A began the intervention immediately following the baseline measures, whereas group B continued with their regular routine for 4 weeks before beginning. Physiological measures (height, weight, blood pressure, relative body fat, waist and hip circumference, and body mass index) were taken and a battery of questionnaires that assessed barrier, task and scheduling self-efficacy, HRQL, and stage of change administered at baseline, week 5 (end of intervention for group A), week 9 (end of intervention for group B; follow-up for group A) and week 13 (follow-up for both groups). Results showed that this workplace physical activity intervention was successful at increasing the participants' daily steps, that task self-efficacy is a significant predictor of participants' exercise adherence during the initial stages of participation (intervention phase), and that the participants felt that this intervention was effective. Finally, further exploratory analyses showed that this intervention was effective for all participants, but most valuable for participants most in need of improvement - that is, those who were most sedentary prior to the intervention. This intervention is an inexpensive use of simple and effective tools (e.g. pedometers), has the potential to attract a wide variety of participants and become a pennanent part of any health promotion initiative.

Relationship between physical activity and resting secretory immunity in children

This study examined relationships among physical activity, body fat and salivary immonoglobulin A (sIgA) levels in adolescent children of Southern Ontario. Gender differences on these factors were also assessed. Sixty-one grade-five students (10-1 lyrs), males (n=29) and females (n=31), who had not received a flu vaccination in the past 12 months, participated in the study. They were assessed for: aerobic power (20-m shuttle run), relative body fat (bioelectrical impedance analysis), sIgA, sIgA/albumin ratio, and salivary Cortisol. Each subject completed the Habitual Activity Estimation Scale and the Participation Questioimaire. Students wore a pedometer for 48h to estimate their average total distance traveled per day. The results show 40% of the children were over 25% body fat and 50% of them spend less than five hours per day in any physical activities. Salivary IgA was not related to salivary Cortisol, physical activity, fitness level or body fat in this age group. There were no gender differences in sIgA and Cortisol levels. Boys had a significantly higher aerobic power and daily distance traveled, but reported similar organized and fi-ee time activity participation levels as the girls. The test-retest reproducibility for salivary Cortisol was 0.663 (p<0.01), while long term sIgA and sIgA/albumin ratio reproducibility was non-significant for repeated measurements taken after six weeks. It was found that salivary IgA has not been shovm to be a stable measure in children, in contrast to the results found in the literatiu-e that tested adults and the relationship with physical activity, fitness level and body fat.

Social physique anxiety across physical activity settings : a meta-analytical review

The purpose of this meta-analytic investigation was to review the empirical evidence specific to the effect of physical activity context on social physique anxiety (SP A). English language studies were located from computer and manual literature searches. A total of 146 initial studies were coded. Studies included in the meta-analysis presented at least one empirical effect for SPA between physical activity participants (i.e., athletes or exercisers) and non-physical activity participants. The final sample included thirteen studies, yielding 14 effect sizes, with a total sample size of 2846. Studies were coded for mean SPA between physical activity participants and non-physical activity participants. Moderator variables related to demographic and study characteristics were also coded. Using Hunter and Schmidt's (2004) protocol, statistical artifacts were corrected. Results indicate that, practically speaking, those who were physically active reported lower levels of SPA than the comparison group (dcorr = -.12; SDeorr.-=-;22). Consideration of the magnitude of the ES, the SDeorr, and confidence interval suggests that this effect is not statistically significant. While most moderator analyses reiterated this trend, some differences were worth noting. Previous research has identified SPA to be especially salient for females compared to males, however, in the current investigation, the magnitude of the ES' s comparing physical activity participants to the comparison group was similar (deorr = -.24 for females and deorr = -.23 for males). Also, the type of physical activity was investigated, and results showed that athletes reported lower levels of SP A than the comparison group (deorr = -.19, SDeorr = .08), whereas exercisers reported higher levels of SPA than the comparison group (deorr = .13, SDeorr = .22). Results demonstrate support for the dispositional nature of SP A. Consideration of practical significance suggests that those who are involved in physical activity may experience slightly lower levels of SPA than those not reporting physical activity participation. Results potentially offer support for the bi-directionality of the relationship between physical activity and SP A; however, a causality may not be inferred. More information about the type of physical activity (i.e., frequency/nature of exercise behaviour, sport classificationllevel of athletes) may help clarify the role of physical activity contexts on SPA.

Investigative links between cognitive function and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in elementary physical education

Research has noted both physical and psychosocial benefits when children participate in regular physical activity. Recent studies are indicating that there may also be academic benefits and that students may be more efficient learners with participation in physical activity. This study investigated the influence of acute moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on four cognitive functions: planning, attention, simultaneous processing, and successive processing. Three classes (59 students) were each tested twice using a balanced design (intervention, balance, and control groups). It was found that the intervention group had a large increase in planning abiHty (ES = 1.67) when compared to the balance (ES = .80) and control (ES = -.89) groups. On the three remaining cognitive functions, the intervention group showed effect sizes similar to that of the balance and control groups. These results indicate that improved planning after physical activity may playa role in improving student performance.

Evaluating the Norfolk physical education program with respect to fitness-level improvement

The grades seven and eight physical education program of the Norfolk Board of Education was evaluated with respect to fitnesslevel improvement, an objective of the Ministry of Education for the province of Ontario. The Canada Fitness Award battery of fitness tests was used to measure fitness levels. It was established that in September the students were unfit, and in May they were fit. This indicated that the Norfolk physical education program was effective, with respect to the criterion used for this research. In addition, it was discovered that fitness-level improvement was significantly related to certain variables: teacher qualifications, teaching experience, school, and participation in extracurricular physical activity. Considering the results of the research, it was recommended that the Norfolk Board of Education hire young, qualified physical education teachers; create the position of Physical Education Consultant; and strive to create equitable resources for physical education instruction, in order that the school to which a student belongs no longer will be a determinant of fitness improvement.

The influence of physical activity behaviour on the relationship between motor proficiency and body composition in children

There is an emerging awareness that children with poor motor abilities are at particular risk for overweight. This cross-sectional study examined the influence of physical activity behaviour on the relationship between motor proficiency and body composition. Participants were 1287 (646 males, 641 females) Grade 6 students in the Physical Health Activity Study project. Height, weight, waist girth, and motor proficiency (Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Performance BOTMP-SF) were assessed. Physical activity behaviours were also evaluated with a multifaceted approach and reported for school-based, non-school based physical activity, free-time play, and sedentary activities (Participation Questionnaire), and leisure time exercise (Godin-Shephard Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire GS). Overweight was defined by BMI scores: boys :::20.6-21.2 and <25.1-26.0; girls: ::: 20.7-21.7and <25.4-26.7 and obesity was defined as: boys:::: 25.1-26.0; girls: :::25.4-26.7. Children were classified as case group (CG,::; 10% on BOTMP-SF), borderline case group (BC, > 10% to ::; 20% on BOTMP-SF) or non-case group. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) uncovered a significant difference in overweight and obesity between the case group and non-case group. Normal-weight children reported higher participation in organized school-sports (intra-mural and inter-school teams). The CG reported significantly lower participation in school sports teams and lower GS results, with a trend towards lower participation in all active pursuits. They also reported a significantly higher duration of television watching and book reading. There were no significant differences between motor proficiency groups by gender, age, nonschool sports, or free-time activity. Multivariate ordinal logistic regression analysis showed that the case group was 10.9 times more likely to be overweight/obese than their peers. No single aspect of physical activity was able to explain the difference in odds ratios for the motor proficiency groups. However, for the entire cohort, children who participated in more organized school sports were less likely to be overweight/obese. These findings confirm that children with low motor proficiency are at significant risk of developing overweight. It is evident that these children have generally attenuated activity levels and heightened levels of sedentary pursuits. School-based activities appear particularly limited, and are the one area where children have near autonomy in their decision to pursue active opportunities. The promotion of school-based programs, specifically intramural sports may be an important aspect in increasing children's overall activity levels. It is also essential to consider the needs of those children with low motor proficiency when designing activity promotion programs. Future research should further explore motor proficiency and overweight/obesity.

Leisure-time physical activity in individuals with osteoporosis : associations with psychological well-being

With approximately 16% of the Canadian population living with osteoporosis, and rates expected to increase (Osteoporosis Canada, 2009), cost-effective treatment modalities that improve bone health and psychological well-being reflect an important public health agenda. Physical activity has been implicated as one non-pharmaceutical mechanism to help improve psychological well-being in the general population (Fox, Stathi, McKenna, & Davis, 2007) and in people diagnosed with osteoporosis (Osteoporosis Canada, 2007). The purpose of this investigation was to determine the association between leisure-time physical activity (LTP A) and well-being in people diagnosed with osteoporosis. A secondary purpose, using Basic Needs Theory (BNT; Deci & Ryan, 2002) was to determine if the fulfillment of three psychological needs (i.e., competence, autonomy and relatedness) mediated the relationship between LTP A and well-being. People diagnosed with osteoporosis (N= 190; Mage = 68.14; SDage = 11.54) were asked to complete a battery of questionnaires assessing L TP A, hedonic and eudaimonic well-being and perceived psychological need satisfaction in physical activity contexts. Bivariate correlations revealed a pattern of negligible (r's -0.02 to 0.35) to small correlations between LTP A and well-being with contextual positive affect (r = 0.24) and subjective vitality (r = 0.22) demonstrating statistical significance (p < .01). Results of the multiple mediation analysis indicated that perceived satisfaction of the three psychological needs mediated the relationship between LTPA and well-being with perceived competence emerging as a unique mediator. As such, LTP A was positively associated with well-being in people who are diagnosed with osteoporosis, and the fulfillment of the three psychological needs may be the mechanism through which this 111 effect is carried. Health promotion specialists and practitioners should encourage patients with osteoporosis to engage in LTP A, and support their needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness. Practical implications for researchers and health promotion specialists are discussed in terms ofthe results of this investigation.

Physical activity of children with developmental coordination disorder in the presence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : does gender matter?

Baerg, S., Cairney, J., Hay, J., Rempel, L. and Faught, B.E. (2009). Physical Activity of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in the Presence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Does Gender Matter? Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, CANADA. Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have difficulties in motor coordination. Attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is considered the condition most co-morbid with DCD at approximately 50%. Children with DCD are generally less physically active (PA) than their peers, while children with ADHD are often considered more physically active. It is not known if the physical activity patterns of children with DCD-ADHD resemble those of children with primarily DCD or that of their healthy peers. The primary objective of this research was to contrast physical activity patterns between children with DCD, DCD-ADHD, and healthy controls. Since boys are generally reported as more physically active than girls, a secondary objective was to determine if gender moderated the association between groups and physical activity. A sample of males (n=66) and females (n=44) were recruited from the Physical Health Activity Study Team (PHAST) longitudinal study. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children (2nd Ed.) was used to identify probable cases of DCD, and Connor's Revised Parent Rating Scale- Short Version to identify ADHD. Subjects (mean age=12.8±.4 yrs) were allocated to three groups; DCD (n=32), DCD-ADHD (n=30) and control (n=48). Physical activity was monitored for seven days with the Actical® accelerometer (activity count, step count and energy expenditure). Children completed the Participation Questionnaire (PQ) during the in-school session of data collection for the PHAST study. Height, weight and body mass index (BMI) were also determined. Analysis of variance showed significant group differences for activity count (F(2,56)=5.36, p=.007) and PQ (F(2,44 )=6. 71, p=.003) in males, while a significant group difference for step count (F(2,37)=3.55, p=.04) was found in females. Post hoc comparison tests (Tukey) identified significantly lower PQ and activity count between males with OCD and controls (p=.004) and males with DCD-ADHD and controls (p=.003). Conversely, females with DCD-ADHD had significantly more step counts than their controls (p=.01). Analysis of covariance demonstrated a gender by DCD groups negative interaction for males (activity count) (F(2,92):;:3.11, p=.049) and a positive interaction for females (step count) (F(1,92)=4.92, p=.009). Hyperactivity in females with DCD-ADHD appears to contribute to more physical activity, whereas DCD may contribute to decreased activity in males with DCD and DCDADHD. Further research is needed to examine gender differences in physical activity within the context of DCD and ADHD.

The role of physical activity and perceived adequacy on cardiorespiratory fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder

Evidence suggests that children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) compared to children without the condition. However, these studies were restricted to field-based methods in order to predict V02 peak in the determination of CRF. Such field tests have been criticised for their ability to provide a valid prediction of V02 peak and vulnerability to psychological aspects in children with DCD, such as low perceived adequacy toward physical activity. Moreover, the contribution of physical activity to the variance in V02 peak between the two groups is unknown. The purpose of our study was to determine the mediating role of physical activity and perceived adequacy towards physical activity on V02 peak in children with significant motor impairments. This prospective case-control design involved 122 (age 12-13 years) children with significant motor impairments (n=61) and healthy matched controls (n=61) based on age, gender and school location. Participants had been previously assessed for motor proficiency and classified as a probable DCD (p-DCD) or healthy control using the movement ABC test. V02 peak was measured by a progressive exercise test on a cycle ergometer. Perceived adequacy was measured using a 7 -item subscale from Children's Selfperception of Adequacy and Predilection for Physical Activity scale. Physical activity was monitored for seven days with the Actical® accelerometer. Children with p-DCD had significantly lower V02 peak (48.76±7.2 ml/ffm/min; p:50.05) compared to controls (53.12±8.2 ml/ffm/min), even after correcting for fat free mass. Regression analysis demonstrated that perceived adequacy and physical activity were significant mediators in the relationship between p-DCD and V02 peak. In conclusion, using a stringent laboratory assessment, the results of the current study verify the findings of earlier studies, adding low CRF to the list of health consequences associated with DCD. It seems that when testing for CRF in this population, there is a need to consider the psychological barriers associated with their condition. Moreover, strategies to increase physical activity in children with DCD may result in improvement in their CRF.

Evaluation of a professional development curriculum in movement education and adapted physical activity for invisible disabilities : a critical cross-case analysis

Movement education and adapted physical activity are content areas not addressed in pre-service education or in-service training for Ontario practitioners working with individuals with disabilities in physical environments. Consequently, physical activity is often overlooked by service providers in programming and intervention for exceptional young learners. A formative evaluation, multiple-case study design was employed in this research in which a purposeful sample of expert practitioners performed a guided, descriptive evaluation of a three-day professional development workshop curriculum designed to supplement these areas lacking in professional preparation within their respective cohorts. Case-by-case and comparative analyses illustrated the inherent assumptions and societal constraints which prioritize the structure of professional development within the education system and other government organizations providing services for school-aged persons with disabilities in Ontario. Findings, discussed from a critical postmodern perspective, illustrate the paradoxical nature of Western values and prevailing mind/body dichotomy that guide professional practice in these fields.

A comparison of self-determined motivational experiences between participants and non-participants following the physical activity component of the CATCH Kid Club

The CATCH Kids Club (CKC) is an after-school intervention that has attempted to address the growing obesity and physical inactivity concerns publicized in current literature. Using Self-Determination Theory (SDT: Deci & Ryan, 1985) perspective, this study's main research objective was to assess, while controlling for gender and age, i f there were significant differences between the treatment (CKC program participants) and control (non- eKC) groups on their perceptions of need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and optimal challenge after four months of participation and after eight months of participation. For this study, data were collected from 79 participants with a mean age of9.3, using the Situational Affective State Questionnaire (SASQ: Mandigo et aI., 2008). In order to determine the common factors present in the data, a principal component analysis was conducted. The analysis resulted in an appropriate three-factor solution, with 14 items loading onto the three factors identified as autonomy, competence and intrinsic motivation. Initially, a multiple analysis of co-variance (MANCOY A) was conducted and found no significant differences or effects (p> 0.05). To further assess the differences between groups, six analyses of co-variance (ANeOY As) were conducted, which also found no significant differences (p >0 .025). These findings suggest that the eKC program is able to maintain the se1fdetermined motivational experiences of its participants, and does not thwart need satisfaction or self-determined motivation through its programming. However, the literature suggests that the CKe program and other P A interventions could be further improved by fostering participants' self-determined motivational experiences, which can lead to the persistence of healthy PA behaviours (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Jacobsen, 2002).

The Moderating Effects of Appearance Commentary on the Relationship Between Weight Status and Physical Activity Participation in Female College Students

When looked at individually, overweight status and a higher frequency of negative appearance commentary (AC) are associated with lower physical activity (PA) levels. However, the combined effect has yet to be examined. The purpose of this study was to examine if the frequency of AC moderated the relationship between weight status and PA in college-aged females. No significant differences in PA levels (F(1,99)=2.41, p=.12) were found between the Never Overweight and Previously/Presently Overweight groups. Significant correlations existed for both negative AC (r=-.30, p=.00) and positive AC (r=.20, p=.05) with PA participation. AC did not significantly moderate the relationship between weight status and PA (F(2,95)=.65, p=.52, R2 adjusted=.13) as the interaction term did not account for any additional increase in variance (ΔR2=.01). Overall, AC frequency does not moderate the relationship between weight status and PA; other predictor variables should be explored.

Health-Enhancing Physical Activity and Well-Being: Is it How Often, How Long, or How Much Effort that Matters? A Test of Basic Psychological Needs Theory

The primary objectives of the present study were 1) to examine the relationship between health-enhancing physical activity (HEPA) and well-being across the previous day and 2) to examine the role of basic psychological need satisfaction as a potential mediator of the HEPA – well-being relationship. Participants (N = 203) were a convenience sample of undergraduate students with data collected cross sectionally. HEPA was generally associated with well-being (r‟s ranged from .18 to .62). Multiple mediation analyses supported psychological need satisfaction as mechanisms underpinning the HEPA – well- being relationship. Subsequent analyses demonstrated that effort put forth in HEPA activities, as opposed to frequency or duration, uniquely predicted well-being. The role of effort was further highlighted in the multiple mediation analyses. As such future research may wish to investigate the utility of a HEPA program that facilitates effortful engagement and fulfillment of basic psychological needs.

Physical Activity and Fitness in Children with Developmental Disorder

Introduction: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a prevalent condition characterized by poor motor proficiency that interferes with a child‟s activities of daily living. Children with DCD often experience compromised health-related fitness components such as cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). Purpose: To better understand the physical activity and fitness characteristics of children with probable DCD (pDCD), with a particular focus on CRF. Specifically: (1) to present a synopsis of current literature; (2) to determine the longitudinal trajectories of CRF; (3) to compare the submaximal CRF of children with and without pDCD. Methods: A comprehensive, systematic literature review was conducted of the recent available data on fitness and physical activity and pDCD (Chapter 2). This review provided the background for the other two studies included in this thesis. In Chapter 3, a prospective cohort design was used to assess how CRF in children with pDCD changes over time (56 months) relative to a group of typically developing controls. Using a nested-case control design, 63 subjects with pDCD and 63 matched controls from the larger sample were recruited to participate in the lab-based component of the study (Chapter 4). In this investigation CRF was examined using the oxygen cost of work (VO2) during an incremental test on a cycle ergometer. Results: The literature review showed that fitness parameters, including CRF and physical activity levels, were consistently reduced in children with pDCD. Chapter 3 demonstrated that the difference in CRF between children with pDCD and typically developing children is substantial, and that it tends to increase over time. Results from VO2 assessments showed that children with pDCD utilized more oxygen to sustain the same submaximal workloads compared to typically developing children. Conclusions: Findings from this thesis have made several important contributions to our understanding of children with pDCD. Since differences in CRF between children with and without pDCD tend to worsen over time, this adds to the argument that interventions intended to improve CRF may be appropriate for children with motor difficulties. This thesis also presented the first evidence suggesting that DCD involves higher energy expenditure, and could help explain why children with pDCD perform poorly on tasks requiring CRF.