Untersuchungen von intrazellulären Signalwegen bei neuraler Determinierung und Differenzierung in vitro: Einfluß von GAP-43 und Bcl-2

Die PCC7-Mz1-Zellinie stellt ein geeignetes Modell dar, um frühe neurale Determinierungs- und Differenzierungsprozesse unter kontrollierten Bedingungen in vitro zu untersuchen. Aus pluripotenten Stammzellen entwickelt sich nach Behandlung mit dem Morphogen Retinsäure (RA) ein stabiles Muster aus Neuronen, Fibroblasten und Astroglia-Zellen. Parallel stirbt ein reproduzierbarer Anteil der Kultur apoptotisch. Zur näheren Aufklärung der molekularen Vorgänge während der neuralen Entwicklung wurde der Einfluß von zwei Schlüsselmolekülen - dem Proteinkinase C Substrat (PKC) GAP-43 sowie dem antiapoptotischen Bcl-2 Protein - auf die neurale Differenzierung und die damit assoziierten Apoptoseereignisse der PCC7-Mz1-Zellen untersucht. Dazu wurden stabile Zellinien, die eine Überexpression von GAP-43 bzw. von Bcl-2 aufwiesen, hergestellt. GAP-43In PCC7-Mz1-Zellen wurde die Expression von GAP-43 sowohl auf mRNA- als auch auf Protein-Ebene innerhalb von 24 Stunden nach Zugabe von RA hochreguliert. GAP-43 war bereits in noch proliferierenden neuronalen Vorläuferzellen als Substrat für PKC und als Interaktionspartner von Calmodulin funktionell. Die Überexpression von GAP-43 in PCC7-Mz1-Zellen förderte die Ausprägung des neuronalen Phänotyps. Das Differenzierungspotential der Mz-GAP-43 Klone war eingeschränkt, da sich nach Induktion mit RA aus den Stammzellen nur noch Neurone, aber keine Fibroblasten und Astroglia-Zellen mehr entwickelten. Die Determinierung für das neuronale Entwicklungsschicksal war in den Mz-GAP-43 Klonen stärker fortgeschritten als in MzN-Klonen, die durch Subklonierung aus PCC7-Mz1-Zellen generiert wurden, da die GAP-43 überexprimierenden Zellen durch Wachstum auf Laminin nicht in den pluripotenten Phänotyp revertiert werden konnten. Aufgrund der Interaktion zwischen GAP-43 und Calmodulin in Stammzellen der Mz-GAP-43 Klone kann man vermuten, daß die neuronalen Determinierungsprozesse über Ca2+/Calmodulin-abhängige Signalwege verlaufen. Da das Gen für den Transkriptionsfaktor NCNF (

Infiammazione e cancro: l'interazione COX-2/CA-IX promuove il potenziale invasivo e la sopravvivenza in ipossia delle cellule del cancro colon-rettale

Cyclooxygenase-2/Carbonic anhydrase-IX up-regulation promotes invasive potential and hypoxia survival in colorectal cancer cells Purpose: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a major mediator of inflammation, playing a pivotal role in colorectal carcinogenesis. Hypoxia is an universal hallmark of solid tumour in vivo. This investigation was prompted by the observation that in colorectal cancer cells the expression of COX-2 protein is positively correlated with that of the hypoxia survival gene Carbonic Anhydrase-IX (CA-IX). Experimental Design: Since COX-2 gene expression and activity is increased in hypoxia, and that CA-IX is expressed also in normoxia in colorectal cancer cells, we tested the hypothesis that COX-2 activity in normoxia, as well as in hypoxia may be functionally linked to that of CA-IX gene. We investigated the role of COX-2 and CA-IX in colorectal cancer cell lines. In this regard, we performed RNA interference to knockdown COX-2 gene in vitro and immunohistochemistry to evaluate the protein expression of COX-2 and CA-IX in human colon cancer tissue specimens ex vivo. Results: We found that COX-2, by PGE2 production, controls CA-IX gene expression in an ERK dependent manner. In line with this finding, we also showed that the COX-2 inhibition by a specific short harpin COX-2 RNA (shCOX-2) or by a specific drug (SC-236), down-regulated CA-IX expression in colon cancer cells. We then exposed colon cancer cells to hypoxia stimuli and found that COX-2/CA-IX interplay promoted hypoxia survival. Moreover, we also report that COX-2/CA-IX interplay triggers Matrix Metalloproteinase 2/9 (MMP-2/9) activation and enhances the invasiveness of colorectal cancer cells. Thus given our above observations, we found that CA-IX and COX-2 protein expressions correlate with more aggressive stage colorectal cancer tissues ex vivo. Conclusions: Taken together these data indicate that COX-2/CA-IX interplay promotes an aggressive phenotype (hypoxia survival and invasiveness) which can be modulated in vitro by COX-2 selective inhibition and which may play a role in determining the biological aggressiveness of colorectal tumours. Moreover, in vitro and ex vivo data also suggest that the signatures of inflammation (COX-2) and hypoxia (CA-IX) may be difficult to be disentangled in colon cancer, being both responsible for the up-regulation of the same pathways.

Knock down von Desmoglein 2 durch induzierbare Cre-spezifische Rekombination in der Maus

Desmosomen sind hoch organisierte adhäsive interzelluläre Verbindungen, die benachbarte Zellen durch Verankerung mit den Intermediärfilamenten des Zytoskeletts miteinander verknüpfen und so Zellen und Geweben Stabilität verleihen. Die Adhäsionsmoleküle der Desmosomen sind die desmosomalen Cadherine. Diese transmembranen Glykoproteine gehen im Interzellulärraum Verbindungen mit den desmosomalen Cadherinen der Nachbarzelle ein und sind im zytoplasmatischen Bereich Anheftungspunkte für weitere an der Desmosomenbildung beteiligte Proteine. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Rolle von Desmoglein 2 (Dsg 2), einem in allen Epithelien exprimierten desmosomalen Cadherin. Da der konstitutive knock out von Dsg 2 embryonal letal ist, wurde im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit eine transgene Maus generiert, in der die Reduktion von Dsg 2 temporär regulierbar war (konditionaler knock down). Dazu wurde der Mechanismus der RNA Interferenz genutzt, wodurch Sequenz-spezifische, post-transkriptionelle Regulation von Genen möglich ist. Unter Verwendung eines über Cre/lox-induzierbaren Vektors wurden transgene Mäuse generiert, welche nach Induktion Dsg 2 shRNA exprimieren, die in der Zelle in siRNA umgewandelt wird und zum Abbau der Dsg 2 mRNA führt. Durch Verpaarung der generierten Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit der über Tamoxifen induzierbaren Cre Deleter knock in Mauslinie Rosa26CreERT2 konnte deutliche Reduktion der Dsg 2 Proteinmenge in Leber, Darm und Herz erreicht werden. In Immunfärbungen der Leber wurde zudem eine reduzierte Desmosomenbildung durch Expression der Dsg 2 shRNA detektiert. Die für diese Versuche generierte und getestete Rosa26CreERT2 Mauslinie ermöglichte jedoch nicht in allen Zellen eines Gewebes die komplette Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase und damit die Expression der shRNA. Dadurch entstanden mosaikartige Wildtyp/knock down-Gewebe, in denen noch ausreichend Desmosomen gebildet wurden, um die Gewebestabilität und -struktur zu erhalten. Für eine funktionale Untersuchung von Dsg 2 in Zusammenhang mit der chronisch entzündlichen Darmerkrankung Colitis ulcerosa wurden die Dsg 2 knock down Mäuse mit Darm-spezifischen, induzierbaren Cre Deleter Mäusen (VillinCreERT2) verpaart. Nach Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase mittels Tamoxifen wurde in bitransgenen Tieren über Gabe von Azoxymethan (AOM) und Dextransodiumsulfat (DSS) Colitis ulcerosa induziert. Diese entzündliche Erkrankung des Darms ist mit der Induktion von Darmtumoren assoziiert. Bereits nach einmaliger Induktion mit AOM/DSS wurde in der ersten endoskopischen Untersuchung eine starke Entzündung des Darmgewebes und die Ausbildung von flächig wachsenden Tumoren in den Dsg 2 knock down Tieren hervorgerufen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass durch knock down von Dsg 2, und die damit verbundene verminderte Desmosomenbildung und Zelladhäsion, Infiltration von Bakterien durch die epitheliale Barriere des Darms möglich war, und so die Entzündungsreaktion in der Darmmukosa verstärkte. In Zusammenhang mit Verlust der epithelialen Festigkeit durch verringerte Zellkontakte kam es zur Hyperproliferation der Darmmukosa, die sich in Ausbildung von flächigen Tumoren äußerte. In weiteren Experimenten müssen nun die Tumore und das entzündete Gewebe der Colitis-induzierten Mäuse mittels Immunfluoreszenz untersucht werden, um Veränderungen in der Desmosomenformation in situ detektieren zu können. Des Weiteren sind Verpaarungen der Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit anderen Cre Rekombinase exprimierenden Mauslinien möglich, um den Einfluss von Dsg 2 auch in anderen Geweben, beispielsweise im Herzen, zu untersuchen. Die hier vorgelegte Arbeit zeigt also erstmalig den ursächlichen Zusammenhang zwischen Dsg 2 und dem Auftreten von Colitis-assoziierten Tumoren in einem konditionalen RNAi-vermittelten knock down Tiermodell. Die Etablierung dieser Maus ist somit das erste konditionale Mausmodell, welches die bei vielen Krebspatienten gefundenen flachzellig wachsenden Tumore in vivo rekapituliert. Vorausschauend kann man sagen, dass mit Hilfe des im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit entwickelten Tiermodells wichtige Erkenntnisses über die Pathologie von Darmtumoren erbracht werden können, die unser Verständnis der Colitis-induzierten Tumorentstehung verbessern.

Neuronal expression of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 in rat dorsal root ganglia: modulation in the spared nerve injury model of neuropathic pain

Neuronal hyperexcitability following peripheral nerve lesions may stem from altered activity of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), which gives rise to allodynia or hyperalgesia. In vitro, the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 is a negative regulator of VGSC α-subunits (Na(v)), in particular Na(v)1.7, a key actor in nociceptor excitability. We therefore studied Nedd4-2 in rat nociceptors, its co-expression with Na(v)1.7 and Na(v)1.8, and its regulation in pathology. Adult rats were submitted to the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain or injected with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), a model of inflammatory pain. L4 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were analyzed in sham-operated animals, seven days after SNI and 48 h after CFA with immunofluorescence and Western blot. We observed Nedd4-2 expression in almost 50% of DRG neurons, mostly small and medium-sized. A preponderant localization is found in the non-peptidergic sub-population. Additionally, 55.7 ± 2.7% and 55.0 ± 3.6% of Nedd4-2-positive cells are co-labeled with Na(v)1.7 and Na(v)1.8 respectively. SNI significantly decreases the proportion of Nedd4-2-positive neurons from 45.9 ± 1.9% to 33.5 ± 0.7% (p<0.01) and the total Nedd4-2 protein to 44% ± 0.13% of its basal level (p<0.01, n=4 animals in each group, mean ± SEM). In contrast, no change in Nedd4-2 was found after peripheral inflammation induced by CFA. These results indicate that Nedd4-2 is present in nociceptive neurons, is downregulated after peripheral nerve injury, and might therefore contribute to the dysregulation of Na(v)s involved in the hyperexcitability associated with peripheral nerve injuries.

Angiopoietin-2 causes pericyte dropout in the normal retina: evidence for involvement in diabetic retinopathy

Pericyte loss is an early pathologic feature of diabetic retinopathy, consistently present in retinae of diabetic humans and animals. Because pericyte recruitment and endothelial cell survival are controlled, in part, by the angiopoietin/Tie2 ligand/receptor system, we studied the expression of angiopoietin-2 and -1 in relation to the evolution of pericyte loss in diabetic rat retinae, using quantitative retinal morphometry, and in retinae from mice with heterozygous angiopoietin deficiency (Ang-2 LacZ knock-in mice). Finally, recombinant angiopoietin-2 was injected into eyes of nondiabetic rats, and pericyte numbers were quantitated in retinal capillaries. Angiopoietin-1 protein was present in the normal maturing retina and was upregulated 2.5-fold in diabetic retinae over 3 months of diabetes. In contrast, angiopoietin-2 protein was consistently upregulated more than 30-fold in the retinae of diabetic rats, preceding the onset of pericyte loss. Heterozygous angiopoietin-2 deficiency completely prevented diabetes-induced pericyte loss and reduced the number of acellular capillary segments. Injection of angiopoietin-2 into the eyes of normal rats induced a dose-dependent pericyte loss. These data show that upregulation of angiopoietin-2 plays a critical role in the loss of pericytes in the diabetic retina.

Angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 share the same binding domains in the Tie-2 receptor involving the first Ig-like loop and the epidermal growth factor-like repeats

Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) have been identified as ligands with different effector functions of the vascular assembly and maturation-mediating receptor tyrosine kinase Tie-2. To understand the molecular interactions of the angiopoietins with their receptor, we have studied the binding of Ang-1 and Ang-2 to the Tie-2 receptor. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based competition assays and co-immunoprecipitation experiments analyzing the binding of Ang-1 and Ang-2 to truncation mutants of the extracellular domain of Tie-2 showed that the first Ig-like loop of Tie-2 in combination with the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats (amino acids 1-360) is required for angiopoietin binding. The first Ig-like domain or the EGF-like repeats alone are not capable of binding Ang-1 and Ang-2. Concomitantly, we made the surprising finding that Tie-2 exon-2 knockout mice do express a mutated Tie-2 protein that lacks 104 amino acids of the first Ig-like domain. This mutant Tie-2 receptor is functionally inactive as shown by the lack of ligand binding and receptor phosphorylation. Collectively, the data show that the first 104 amino acids of the Tie-2 receptor are essential but not sufficient for angiopoietin binding. Conversely, the first 360 amino acids (Ig-like domain plus EGF-like repeats) of the Tie-2 receptor are necessary and sufficient to bind both Ang-1 and Ang-2, which suggests that differential receptor binding is not likely to be responsible for the different functions of Ang-1 and Ang-2.

Increased invasive potential and up-regulation of MMP-2 in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells expressing the beta3 integrin subunit

Integrins are a family of transmembrane adhesion receptors that might transduce signals from the extracellular matrix into the inside of cells after ligand binding. In order to investigate whether beta3 integrins expressed in tumor cells might mediate such outside-in signaling, human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells that were stably transfected with either beta3 integrin or mock-transfected were investigated in a matrigel degradation assay and a grafting experiment was performed on the developing chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). After cultivation on matrigel for time periods between one and five days, more matrigel was digested in the wells in which beta3 integrin expressing cells were incubated than in wells of mock-transfected cells. Furthermore, extracts of beta3 integrin expressing cells contained higher levels of MMP-2 protein as determined by immunoblotting and more MMP-2 associated gelatinase activity as detected by zymography than extracts of mock-transfected cells. Matrigel degradation and gelatinase activity as well as MMP-2 expression were elevated when beta3 integrin expressing cells were incubated in the presence of the RGD peptide (mimicking an integrin ligand). After grafting on 10 day-old embryonic chicken CAM for three to five days, beta3 integrin expressing cells assembled in spheroids showed higher rates of spreading on the CAM surface and CAM invasion as well as a significant MMP-2 up-regulation compared to mock-transfected cells. The results from the in vivo and in vitro experiments allow the conclusion that the presence of beta3 integrin in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells induced an increased MMP-2 expression and activity that might contribute to the enhanced invasive potential observed.

COX-2 expression in operable triple negative breast cancer: A hospital based cross-sectional study

Objectives. Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) lack expression of estrogen receptors (ER), progesterone receptors (PR), and absence of Her2 gene amplification. Current literature has identified TNBC and over-expression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein in primary breast cancer to be independent markers of poor prognosis in terms of overall and distant disease free survival. The purpose of this study was to compare COX-2 over-expression in TNBC patients to those patients who expressed one or more of the three tumor markers (i.e. ER, and/or PR, and/or Her2).^ Methods. Using a secondary data analysis, a cross-sectional design was implemented to examine the association of interest. Data collected from two ongoing protocols titled "LAB04-0657: a model for COX-2 mediated bone metastasis (Specific aim 3)" and "LAB04-0698: correlation of circulating tumor cells and COX-2 expression in primary breast cancer metastasis" was used for analysis. A sample of 125 female patients was analyzed using Chi-square tests and logistic regression models. ^ Results. COX-2 over-expression was present in 33% (41/125) and 28% (35/124) patients were identified as having TNBC. TNBC status was associated with elevated COX-2 expression (OR= 3.34; 95% CI= 1.40–8.22) and high tumor grade (OR= 4.09; 95% CI= 1.58–10.82). In a multivariable analysis, TNBC status was an important predictor of COX-2 expression after adjusting for age, menopausal status, BMI, and lymph node status (OR= 3.31; 95% CI: 1.26–8.67; p=0.01).^ Conclusion. TNBC is associated with COX-2 expression—a known marker of poor prognosis in patients with operable breast cancer. Replication of these results in a study with a larger sample size, or a future randomized clinical trial demonstrating an improved prognosis with COX-2 suppression in these patients would support this hypothesis.^

Autoregulation of TRA-2 pre -mRNA splicing

One of the most elegant and tightly regulated mechanisms for control of gene expression is alternative pre-mRNA splicing. Despite the importance of regulated splicing in a variety of biological processes relatively little is understood about the mechanisms by which specific alternative splice choices are made and regulated. The transformer-2 (tra-2) gene encodes a splicing regulator that controls the use of alternative splicing pathways in the sex determination cascade of D. melanogaster and is particularly interesting because it directs the splicing of several distinct pre-mRNAs in different manners. The tra-2 protein positively regulates the splicing of both doublesex (dsx) and fruitless (fru) pre-mRNAs. Additionally tra-2 controls exuperantia (exu) by directing the choices between splicing and cleavage/polyadenylation and autoregulates the tra-2 pre-mRNA processing by repressing the removal of a specific intron (called M1). The goal of this study is to identify the molecular mechanisms by which TRA-2 protein affects the alternative splicing of pre-mRNA deriving from the tra-2 gene itself.^ The autoregulation of M1 splicing plays a key role in regulation of the relative levels of two functionally distinct TRA-2 protein isoforms expressed in the male germline. We have examined whether the structure, function, and regulation of tra-2 are conserved in Drosophila virilis, a species diverged from D. melanogaster by over 60 million years. We find that the D. virilis homolog of tra-2 produces alternatively spliced RNAs encoding a set of protein isoforms analogous to those found in D. melanogaster. When introduced into the genome of D. melanogaster, this homolog can functionally replace the endogenous tra-2 gene for both normal female sexual differentiation and spermatogenesis. Examination of alternative pre-mRNAs produced in D. virilis testes suggests that the germline-specific autoregulation of tra-2 function is accomplished by a strategy similar to that used in D. melanogaster.^ To identify elements necessary for regulation of tra-2 M1 splicing, we mutagenized evolutionarily conserved sequences within the tra-2 M1 intron and flanking exons. Constructs containing these mutations were used to generate transgenic fly lines that have been tested for their ability to carry out autoregulation. These transgenic fly experiments elucidated several elements that are necessary for setting up a context under which tissue-specific regulation of M1 splicing can occur. These elements include a suboptimal 3$\sp\prime$ splice site, an element that has been conserved between D. virilis and D. melanogaster, and an element that resembles the 3$\sp\prime$ portion of a dsx repeat and other splicing enhancers.^ Although important contextual features of the tra-2 M1 intron have been delineated in the transgenic fly experiments, the specific RNA sequences that interact directly with the TRA-2 protein were not identified. Using Drosophila nuclear extracts from Schneider cells, we have shown that recombinant TRA-2 protein represses M1 splicing in vitro. UV crosslinking analysis suggests that the TRA-2 protein binds to several different sites within and near the M1 intron. ^

Potential roles for bcl-2 in the pathogenesis, progression, and treatment of prostate cancer

The most common molecular alterations observed in prostate cancer are increased bcl-2 protein expression and mutations in p53. Understanding the molecular alterations associated with prostate cancer are critical for successful treatment and designing new therapeutic interventions. Hormone-ablation therapy remains the most effective nonsurgical treatment; however, most patients will relapse with hormone-independent, refractory disease. This study addresses how hormone-ablation therapy may increase bcl-2, develops a transgenic model to elucidate the role of bcl-2 multistep prostate carcinogenesis, and assesses how bcl-2 may confer resistance to cell death induction using adenoviral wild-type p53 gene therapy. ^ Two potential androgen response elements were identified in the bcl-2 promoter. Bcl-2 promoter luciferase constructs were transfected into the hormone- sensitive LNCaP prostate cell line. In the presence of dihydrotestosterone, the activity of one bcl-2 promoter luciferase construct was repressed 40% compared to control cells grown in charcoal-stripped serum. Additionally, it was demonstrated that both bcl-2 mRNA and protein were downregulated in the LNCaP cells grown in the presence DHT. This suggests that DHT represses bcl-2 expression through possible direct and indirect mechanisms and that hormone-ablation therapy may actually increases bcl-2 protein. ^ To determine the role of bcl-2 in prostate cancer progression in vivo, probasin-bcl-2 mice were generated where human bcl-2 was targeted to the prostate. Increased bcl-2 expression rendered the ventral prostate more resistant to apoptosis induction following castration. When the probasin-bcl-2 mice were crossed with TRAMP mice, the latency to tumor formation was decreased. The expression of bcl-2 in the double transgenic mice did not affect the incidence of metastases. The double transgenic model will facilitate the study of in vivo effects of specific genetic lesions during the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. ^ The effects of increased bcl-2 protein on wild-type adenoviral p53-mediated cell death were determined in prostatic cell lines. Increased bcl-2 protected PC3 and DU145 cell lines, which possess mutant p53, from p53-mediated cell death and reductions in cell viability. Bcl-2 did not provide the same protective effect in LNCaP cell line, which expresses wild-type p53. This suggests that the ability of bcl-2 to protect against p53-mediated cell death is dependent upon the endogenous status of p53. ^

Heterotrimeric G protein -mediated signal transduction in Neurospora crassa

Heterotrimeric G protein-mediated signal transduction is one of numerous means that cells utilize to respond to external stimuli. G proteins consist of α, β andγ subunits. Extracellular ligands bind to seven-transmembrane helix receptors, triggering conformational changes. This is followed by activation of coupled G proteins through the exchange of GDP for GTP on the Gα subunit. Once activated, Gα-GTP dissociates from the βγ dimer. Both of these two moieties can interact with downstream effectors, such as adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, phosphodiesterases, or ion channels, leading to a series of changes in cellular metabolism and physiology. ^ Neurospora crassa is a eukaryotic multicellular filamentous fungus, with asexual/vegetative and sexual phases to its life cycle. Three Gα (GNA-1, GNA-2, GNA-3) and one Gβ (GNB-1) proteins have been identified in this organism. This dissertation investigates GNA-1 and GNB-1 mediated signaling pathways in N. crassa. ^ GNA-1 was the first identified microbial Gα that belongs to a mammalian superfamily (Gαi). Deletion of GNA-1 leads to multiple defects in N. crassa. During the asexual cycle, Δgna-1 strains display a slower growth rate and delayed conidiation on solid medium. In the sexual cycle, the Δgna-1 mutant is male-fertile but female-sterile. Biochemical studies have shown that Δ gna-1 strains have lower adenosine 3′–5 ′ cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) levels than wild type under conditions where phenotypic defects are observed. In this thesis work, strains containing one of two GTPase-deficient gna-1 alleles (gna-1 R178C, gna-1Q204L) leading to constitutive activation of GNA-1 have been constructed and characterized. Activation of GNA-1 causes uncontrolled aerial hyphae proliferation, elevated sensitivity to heat and oxidative stresses, and lower carotenoid synthesis. To further study the function of GNA-1, constructs to enable expression of mammalian Gαi superfamily members were transformed into a Δ gna-1 strain, and complementation of Δgna-1 defects investigated. Gαs, which is not a member of Gα i superfamily was used as a control. These mammalian Gα genes were able to rescue the vegetative growth rate defect of the Δ gna-1 strain in the following order: Gαz > Gα o > Gαs > Gαt > Gαi. In contrast, only Gαo was able to complement the sexual defect of a Δgna-1 strain. With regard to the thermotolerance phenotype, none of the mammalian Gα genes restored the sensitivity to a wild type level. These results suggest that GNA-1 regulates two independent pathways during the vegetative and sexual cycles in N. crassa. ^ GNB-1, a G protein β subunit from N. crassa, was identified and its functions investigated in this thesis work. The sequence of the gnb-1 gene predicts a polypeptide of 358 residues with a molecular mass of 39.7 kDa. GNB-1 exhibits 91% identity to Cryphonectria parasitica CPGB-1, and also displays significant homology with human and Dictyostelium Gβ genes (∼66%). A Δ gnb-1 strain was constructed and shown to exhibit defects in asexual spore germination, vacuole number and size, mass accumulation and female fertility. A novel role for GNB-1 in regulation of GNA-1 and GNA-2 protein levels was also demonstrated. ^

Regulation of Bcl-2 expression by the product of the prostate apoptosis response gene -4, Par-4

Elevated expression levels of the bcl-2 proto-oncogene have been correlated with the appearance of androgen independence in prostate cancer. Although bcl-2 was first cloned as the t (14:18) translocation breakpoint from human follicular B cell lymphoma, the mechanism of overexpression of bcl-2 is largely undefined for advanced prostate cancer, there being no gross alterations in the gene structure. We investigated the role of the product of the prostate apoptosis response gene-4 (Par-4) and the product of the Wilms' tumor 1 gene (WT1) in the regulation of Bcl-2 expression in prostate cancer cell lines. We observed growth arrest and apoptosis, upon decreasing Bcl-2 protein and transcript in the high Bcl-2 expressing, androgen-independent prostate cancer cell lines, by all trans-retinoic acid treatment but this did not occur in the androgen-dependent cell lines expressing low levels of Bcl-2. Changes in localization of Par-4, and an induction in the expression of WT1 protein accompanied the decrease in the Bcl-2 protein and transcript following all trans-retinoic acid treatment, in the androgen-independent prostate cancer cell line. In stable clones expressing ectopic Par-4 we observed decreased Bcl-2 protein and transcript. This was accompanied by an induction in WT1 expression. Finally, we detected Par-4 and WT1 proteins binding to a previously identified WT1 binding site on the bcl-2 promoter both in vitro and in vivo leading to a decrease in transcription from the bcl-2 promoter. We conclude that Par-4 regulates Bcl-2 through a WT1 binding site on the bcl-2 promoter. ^

Proteolytic processing of the Alzheimer disease-associated presenilin-1 generates an in vivo substrate for protein kinase C

The majority of familial Alzheimer disease mutations are linked to the recently cloned presenilin (PS) genes, which encode two highly homologous proteins (PS-1 and PS-2). It was shown that the full-length PS-2 protein is phosphorylated constitutively within its N-terminal domain by casein kinases, whereas the PS-1 protein is not. Full-length PS proteins undergo endoproteolytic cleavage within their hydrophilic loop domain resulting in the formation of ≈20-kDa C-terminal fragments (CTF) and ≈30-kDa N-terminal fragments [Thinakaran, G., et al. (1996) Neuron 17, 181–190]. Here we describe the surprising finding that the CTF of PS-1 is phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC). Stimulation of PKC causes a 4- to 5-fold increase of the phosphorylation of the ≈20-kDa CTF of PS-1 resulting in reduced mobility in SDS gels. PKC-stimulated phosphorylation occurs predominantly on serine residues and can be induced either by direct stimulation of PKC with phorbol-12,13-dibutyrate or by activation of the m1 acetylcholine receptor-signaling pathway with the muscarinic agonist carbachol. However, phosphorylation of full-length PS-1 and PS-2 is not altered upon PKC stimulation. In addition, a mutant form of PS-1 lacking exon 10, which does not undergo endoproteolytic cleavage [Thinakaran, G., et al. (1996) Neuron 17, 181–190] is not phosphorylated by PKC, although it still contains all PKC phosphorylation sites conserved between different species. These results show that PKC phosphorylates the PS-1 CTF. Therefore, endoproteolytic cleavage of full-length PS-1 results in the generation of an in vivo substrate for PKC. The selective phosphorylation of the PS-1 CTF indicates that the physiological and/or pathological properties of the CTF are regulated by PKC activity.

Effects of protein calorie malnutrition on tuberculosis in mice

Infectious diseases and malnutrition represent major burdens afflicting millions of people in developing countries. Both conditions affect individuals in industrialized nations, particularly the aged, the HIV-infected, and people with chronic diseases. While malnutrition is known to induce a state of immunodeficiency, the mechanisms responsible for compromised antimicrobial resistance in malnourished hosts remain obscure. In the present study, mice fed a 2% protein diet and developing protein calorie malnutrition, in contrast to well-nourished controls receiving a 20% protein diet, rapidly succumbed to infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Malnourished mice exhibited a tissue-specific diminution in the expression of interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, and the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the lungs, but not the liver. The expression of these molecules critical to the production of mycobactericidal nitrogen oxides was depressed in malnourished animals in the lungs specifically at early times (<14 days) after infection. At later times, levels of expression became comparable to those in well-nourished controls, although the bacillary burden in the malnourished animals continued to rise. Nevertheless, urinary and serum nitrate contents, an index of total nitric oxide (NO) production in vivo, were not detectably diminished in malnourished, mycobacteria-infected mice. In contrast to the selective and early reduction of lymphokines and the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the lung, a marked diminution of the granulomatous reaction was observed in malnourished mice throughout the entire course of infection in all tissues examined (lungs, liver, and spleen). Remarkably, the progressively fatal course of tuberculosis observed in the malnourished mice could be reversed by restoring a full protein (20%) diet. The results indicate that protein calorie malnutrition selectively compromises several components of the cellular immune response that are important for containing and restricting tuberculous infection, and suggest that malnutrition-induced susceptibility to some infectious diseases can be reversed or ameliorated by nutritional intervention.

The visual response of retinal ganglion cells is not altered by optic nerve transection in transgenic mice overexpressing Bcl-2

Attempts to rescue retinal ganglion cells from retrograde degeneration have had limited success, and the residual function of surviving neurons is not known. Recently, it has been found that axotomized retinal ganglion cells die by apoptotic mechanisms. We have used adult transgenic mice overexpressing the Bcl-2 protein, a powerful inhibitor of apoptosis, as a model for preventing injury-induced cell death in vivo. Several months after axotomy, the majority of retinal ganglion cells survived and exhibited normal visual responses. In control wild-type mice, the vast majority of axotomized retinal ganglion cells degenerated, and the physiological responses were abolished. These results suggest that strategies aimed at increasing Bcl-2 expression, or mimicking its function, might effectively counteract trauma-induced cell death in the central nervous system. Neuronal survival is a necessary condition in the challenge for promoting regeneration and eventually restoring neuronal function.