844 resultados para discretionary judgement in contract
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The early twentieth century constituted the heyday of the ‘breadwinner–homemaker’ household, characterized by a high degree of intra-household functional specialization between paid and domestic work according to age, gender, and marital status. This article examines the links between formal workforce participation and access to resources for individualized discretionary spending in British working-class households during the late 1930s, via an analysis of household leisure expenditures. Leisure spending is particularly salient to intra-household resource allocation, as it constitutes one of the most highly prioritized areas of individualized expenditure, especially for young, single people. Using a database compiled from surviving returns to the Ministry of Labour's national 1937/8 working-class expenditure survey, we examine leisure participation rates for over 600 households, using a detailed set of commercial leisure activities together with other relevant variables. We find that the employment status of family members other than the male breadwinner was a key factor influencing their access to commercial leisure. Our analysis thus supports the view that the breadwinner–homemaker household was characterized by strong power imbalances that concentrated resources—especially for individualized expenditures—in the hands of those family members who engaged in paid labour.
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One of the central problems in contract law is to define the frontier between legal and illegal breaches of promises. The distinction between good and bad faith is perhaps the conceptual tool most commonly used to tell one from the other. Lawyers spend a lot of energy trying to frame better definitions of the concepts of good and bad faith based on principles of ethics or justice, but often pay much less attention to theories dealing with the incentives that can engender good faith behavior in contractual relationships. By describing the economics of what Stiglitz defined as “explicit” and “implicit” insurance, I highlight the “insurance function” hidden in any promise with basically no mathematical notation. My aim is to render the subject intelligible and useful to lawyers with little familiarity with economics.
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The real effects of an imperfectly credible disinflation depend critically on the extent of price rigidity. Therefore, the study of how policymakers’ credibility affects the outcome of an announced disinflation should not be dissociated from the analysis of the determinants of the frequency of price adjustments. In this paper we examine how credibility affects the outcome of a disinflation in a model with endogenous timedependent pricing rules. Both the initial degree of price ridigity, calculated optimally, and, more notably, the changes in contract length during disinflation play an important role in the explanation of the effects of imperfect credibility. We initially evaluate the costs of disinflation in a setup where credibility is exogenous, and then allow agents to use Bayes rule to update beliefs about the “type” of monetary authority that they face. In both cases, the interaction between the endogeneity of time-dependent rules and imperfect credibility increases the output costs of disinflation, but the pattern of the output path is more realistic in the case with learning.
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Este estudo examina a relação entre o porte da empresa de auditoria e a manipulação da informação contábil. Consistente com a literatura, o porte de auditoria tem sido utilizado como proxy de qualidade do serviço, e classificado como auditoria Big 6 e não-Big 6, sendo quanto maior o porte, maior a qualidade. A pesquisa abrangeu os estudos que utilizam acumulações discricionárias na estimação da manipulação da informação contábil. Por meio de uma revisão sistemática da literária, foram selecionadas 14 pesquisas empíricas, abrangendo Estados Unidos, Europa e Ásia. Com base na análise dos seus aspectos substantivos e metodológicos, a conclusão é que a magnitude da manipulação da informação contábil não é uniforme nos países estudados sugerindo que os ambientes cultural, institucional e legal podem influenciar a capacidade da auditoria em mitigar a ação discricionária dos gestores.
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Crises bancárias podem implicar uma alta redistribuição de recursos em uma sociedade. O interesse público em manter os bancos em funcionamento demanda o desenho de regimes eficazes de resolução, pois a falência desordenada desses intermediários pode ser uma fonte de risco sistêmico. O Banco Central, autoridade responsável por zelar pela higidez do sistema financeiro, pode se valer de diversos instrumentos para reestruturar ou liquidar um banco em dificuldade financeira. De modo a prevenir a propagação do risco sistêmico, as regras jurídicas conferem ao Banco Central uma ampla margem de discricionariedade no julgamento de quais bancos merecem receber assistência financeira e na escolha dos métodos de resolução bancária. O caráter globalizado das finanças exige uma maior coordenação entre autoridades domésticas na resolução de bancos que operam em múltiplas jurisdições. Algumas iniciativas de órgãos internacionais no período pós-crise de 2007-2008 têm buscado instituir, em nível global, um marco normativo para gerenciamento de crises bancárias, através da harmonização de regimes domésticos de resolução. O histórico de crises do sistema financeiro brasileiro levou ao desenvolvimento de uma rede de proteção bancária em momentos anteriores à crise financeira global de 2007-2008. Assim, o sistema financeiro brasileiro apresentou bom funcionamento mesmo nas fases mais agudas. Não tendo experimentado uma crise sistêmica no período recente, o Brasil não está passando por reformas profundas na estrutura institucional do seu sistema financeiro, a exemplo de países como Estados Unidos e Reino Unido. No entanto, desafios impostos pela crescente globalização das finanças e peculiaridades locais motivam reformas e mudanças discretas nos padrões de governança da rede de proteção brasileira. Através da reconstituição da atuação do Banco Central em três momentos de crise no Brasil, o presente trabalho busca analisar criticamente a rede de proteção bancária brasileira e os mecanismos jurídicos de accountability da autoridade financeira no exercício da supervisão e administração de crises bancárias.
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A regulamentação das hipóteses de erro no Direito Obrigacional foi objeto de profunda alteração em razão da nova redação atribuída à matéria pelo novo Código Civil e em razão do novo cenário desenhado pelo princípio da manutenção do contrato. A presente dissertação trata das diferenças entre a regulamentação do erro em face do Código anterior (1916 – “CC/16”, artigos 86 a 113) e do novo Código (2002 – “CC/02”, artigos 138 a 166). Além disso, a dissertação trata sobre as conseqüências advindas do desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro, inclusive sobre eventual indenização. As questões propostas e que subjazem esta dissertação são: em quais situações a parte pode requerer o desfazimento por erro? A existência de erro, somente, é suficiente para que se declare inválido o contrato? E quais são as conseqüências da invalidação do negócio jurídico? Há algum dever indenizatório? As respostas a essas questões serão umas, se analisadas a partir das regras do Código Civil de 1916, e outras, se respondidas com base nas regras do Código Civil de 2002. A dissertação analisa o fato de, em regra, a doutrina apontar como modificação do novo Código Civil a introdução do princípio da proteção da confiança daquele que não agiu em erro. Na verdade, no entanto, essa proteção já era implementada na vigência do Código Civil anterior (CC/16), por meio do dever de indenizar. Portanto, a proteção da outra parte não é novidade introduzida pelo novo Código Civil (CC/02). A tese exposta nesta dissertação aponta para o fato de que, além da proteção da outra parte, a lei protege o contrato em si, como uma forma de proteger o comércio, ou seja, todos os demais contratos que dependem dele, direta ou indiretamente. E essa proteção é colocada em prática ao se dificultar o desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro. Nesse sentido, o novo Código Civil inovou ao acrescentar um outro requisito para o desfazimento do negócio por erro: a sua recognoscibilidade.
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Esta dissertação pretende demonstrar que os Juizados Especiais Cíveis Estaduais, regulados pela Lei n° 9.099/95, orientados pelos princípios da oralidade, simplicidade, informalidade, economia processual e celeridade, que foram criados em decorrência da necessidade de viabilizar um maior acesso à justiça, principalmente da população mais carente, com redução de custos e simplificação de procedimentos que possibilitassem os julgamentos dentro de um prazo razoável, na realidade da práxis forense, estão sendo desvirtuado dos seus objetivos. Neste sentido, o estudo apresenta números comprovando que os Juizados Especiais cumpriram seu desiderato de proporcionar o acesso ao judiciário, mas que passaram a padecer do mesmo problema da justiça comum: a morosidade na entrega da prestação jurisdicional. Além da incompatibilidade de estrutura com a atual demanda que obviamente vai ensejar lentidão nos Juizados, o estudo apresenta como motivo para esse quadro a conduta dos juizes, responsáveis pela administração do processo, que reproduzem nos Juizados o fomlalismo e a burocracia inerente ao processo civil comum, ao instituir, em evidente descompasso com a lei e seus princípios, um procedimento com duas audiências, sendo uma para conciliação e outra, nos casos em que não é obtido acordo, para instrução e julgamento, em dias distintos, aumentando o tempo de duração dos processos. O estudo conclui que a utilização de audiência única, além de ser uma detenninação legal e estar em sintonia com seus princípios, proporciona celeridade nos julgamentos. diminuindo o custo e o tempo de espera dos litigantes, obstáculos do acesso à justiça que a Lei n° 9.099/95 procurou remover.
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The real effects of an imperfectly credible disinflation depend critically on the extent of price rigidity. Therefore, the study of how policymakers’ credibility affects the outcome of an announced disinflation should not be dissociated from the analysis of the determinants of the frequency of price adjustments. In this paper we examine how the policymaker’s credibility affects the outcome of an announced disinflation in a model with endogenous time-dependent pricing rules. Both the initial degree of price ridigity, calculated optimally, and, more notably, the changes in contract length during disinflation play an important role in the explanation of the effects of imperfect credibility. We initially evalute the costs of disinflation in a setup where credibility is exogenous, and then allow agents to update beliefs about the “type” of monetary authority that they face. We show that, in both cases, the interaction between the endogeneity of time-dependent rules and imperfect credibility increases the output costs of disinflation.
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Face às dimensões continentais do país, as organizações situadas em regiões carentes de fornecedores de desenvolvimento de sistemas de software especializado estão distribuindo suas operações de Information Technology Outsourcing (ITO), para outras regiões. Como consequência, a redução de custos e a melhoria da contratação de serviços em Tecnologia da Informação (TI) têm sido os dois grandes focos da atualidade, incentivando à noção de parceiros múltiplos em operações recíprocas e engajados tanto em relacionamentos formais quanto informais como a terceirização. Os serviços terceirizados são diversificados e entre eles está o desenvolvimento e manutenção de software através de contratos, realizados por organizações situadas em regiões onde existe demanda de software com características específicas. Sabe-se que a terceirização de Software e Serviços Correlatos (S&SC), que inclui as atividades de contratação e gestão do processo de aquisição é uma tarefa complexa e necessária para as organizações, principalmente no que diz respeito às condições envolvidas na contratação. Nesses casos, o exercício da governança tem sido um importante instrumento para, com a terceirização de TI, promover a gestão adequada do risco e o retorno do investimento. Sendo assim, o processo de compra ou venda de um produto de software nesse ambiente é uma atividade que envolve um grande número de conceitos subjetivos, referentes principalmente a características dos produtos. Torna-se maior o desafio quando se trata de software de prateleira modificável (Modified Off-The-Shelf - MOTS) que sofrem modificações e adições de requisitos a cada novo cliente. Neste contexto, buscando adequar as exigências do mercado com as necessidades de métodos e diretrizes para melhoria dos processos de aquisição e fornecimento de software, este trabalho procura explorar as principais características acerca do contrato, do controle de qualidade, e os resultados dos relacionamentos adotados na implementação de projetos de terceirização desenvolvidos á distância. São apresentados os resultados obtidos de um estudo de caso conduzido em uma empresa pública de Medicina Transfusional situada no norte do Brasil que adotou este processo. Por fim, este texto apresenta uma discussão sobre os diferenciais e limitações deste trabalho, e apresenta direcionamentos para investigações futuras neste campo de estudo.
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
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Pós-graduação em Engenharia Mecânica - FEIS
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BACKGROUND Partner notification (PN) is the process whereby sexual partners of an index patient are informed of their exposure to a sexually transmitted infection (STI) and the need to obtain treatment. For the person (index patient) with a curable STI, PN aims to eradicate infection and prevent re-infection. For sexual partners, PN aims to identify and treat undiagnosed STIs. At the level of sexual networks and populations, the aim of PN is to interrupt chains of STI transmission. For people with viral STI, PN aims to identify undiagnosed infections, which can facilitate access for their sexual partners to treatment and help prevent transmission. OBJECTIVES To assess the effects of different PN strategies in people with STI, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. SEARCH METHODS We searched electronic databases (the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE and EMBASE) without language restrictions. We scanned reference lists of potential studies and previous reviews and contacted experts in the field. We searched three trial registries. We conducted the most recent search on 31 August 2012. SELECTION CRITERIA Published or unpublished randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs comparing two or more PN strategies. Four main PN strategies were included: patient referral, expedited partner therapy, provider referral and contract referral. Patient referral means that the patient notifies their sexual partners, either with (enhanced patient referral) or without (simple patient referral) additional verbal or written support. In expedited partner therapy, the patient delivers medication or a prescription for medication to their partner(s) without the need for a medical examination of the partner. In provider referral, health service personnel notify the partners. In contract referral, the index patient is encouraged to notify partner, with the understanding that the partners will be contacted if they do not visit the health service by a certain date. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS We analysed data according to paired partner referral strategies. We organised the comparisons first according to four main PN strategies (1. enhanced patient referral, 2. expedited partner therapy, 3. contract referral, 4. provider referral). We compared each main strategy with simple patient referral and then with each other, if trials were available. For continuous outcome measures, we calculated the mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). For dichotomous variables, we calculated the risk ratio (RR) with 95% CI. We performed meta-analyses where appropriate. We performed a sensitivity analysis for the primary outcome re-infection rate of the index patient by excluding studies with attrition of greater than 20%. Two review authors independently assessed the risk of bias and extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. MAIN RESULTS We included 26 trials (17,578 participants, 9015 women and 8563 men). Five trials were conducted in developing countries. Only two trials were conducted among HIV-positive patients. There was potential for selection bias, owing to the methods of allocation used and of performance bias, owing to the lack of blinding in most included studies. Seven trials had attrition of greater than 20%, increasing the risk of bias.The review found moderate-quality evidence that expedited partner therapy is better than simple patient referral for preventing re-infection of index patients when combining trials of STIs that caused urethritis or cervicitis (6 trials; RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.89, I(2) = 39%). When studies with attrition greater than 20% were excluded, the effect of expedited partner therapy was attenuated (2 trials; RR 0.8, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.04, I(2) = 0%). In trials restricted to index patients with chlamydia, the effect was attenuated (2 trials; RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.35, I(2) = 22%). Expedited partner therapy also increased the number of partners treated per index patient (three trials) when compared with simple patient referral in people with chlamydia or gonorrhoea (MD 0.43, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.58) or trichomonas (MD 0.51, 95% CI 0.35 to 0.67), and people with any STI syndrome (MD 0.5, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.67). Expedited partner therapy was not superior to enhanced patient referral in preventing re-infection (3 trials; RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.53, I(2) = 33%, low-quality evidence). Home sampling kits for partners (four trials) did not result in lower rates of re-infection in the index case (measured in one trial), or higher numbers of partners elicited (three trials), notified (two trials) or treated (one trial) when compared with simple patient referral. There was no consistent evidence for the relative effects of provider, contract or other patient referral methods. In one trial among men with non-gonococcal urethritis, more partners were treated with provider referral than with simple patient referral (MD 0.5, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.63). In one study among people with syphilis, contract referral elicited treatment of more partners than provider referral (MD 2.2, 95% CI 1.95 to 2.45), but the number of partners receiving treatment was the same in both groups. Where measured, there was no statistical evidence of differences in the incidence of adverse effects between PN strategies. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS The evidence assessed in this review does not identify a single optimal strategy for PN for any particular STI. When combining trials of STI causing urethritis or cervicitis, expedited partner therapy was more successful than simple patient referral for preventing re-infection of the index patient but was not superior to enhanced patient referral. Expedited partner therapy interventions should include all components that were part of the trial intervention package. There was insufficient evidence to determine the most effective components of an enhanced patient referral strategy. There are too few trials to allow consistent conclusions about the relative effects of provider, contract or other patient referral methods for different STIs. More high-quality RCTs of PN strategies for HIV and syphilis, using biological outcomes, are needed.
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La vulnerabilidad de los sistemas ganaderos de pastoreo pone en evidencia la necesidad de herramientas para evaluar y mitigar los efectos de la sequía. El avance en la teledetección ha despertado el interés por explotar potenciales aplicaciones, y está dando lugar a un intenso desarrollo de innovaciones en distintos campos. Una de estas áreas es la gestión del riesgo climático, en donde la utilización de índices de vegetación permite la evaluación de la sequía. En esta investigación, se analiza el impacto de la sequía y se evalúa el potencial de nuevas tecnologías como la teledetección para la gestión del riesgo de sequía en sistemas de ganadería extensiva. Para ello, se desarrollan tres aplicaciones: (i) evaluar el impacto económico de la sequía en una explotación ganadera extensiva de la dehesa de Andalucía, (ii) elaborar mapas de vulnerabilidad a la sequía en pastos de Chile y (iii) diseñar y evaluar el potencial de un seguro indexado para sequía en pastos en la región de Coquimbo en Chile. En la primera aplicación, se diseña un modelo dinámico y estocástico que integra aspectos climáticos, ecológicos, agronómicos y socioeconómicos para evaluar el riesgo de sequía. El modelo simula una explotación ganadera tipo de la dehesa de Andalucía para el período 1999-2010. El método de Análisis Histórico y la simulación de MonteCarlo se utilizan para identificar los principales factores de riesgo de la explotación, entre los que destacan, los periodos de inicios del verano e inicios de invierno. Los resultados muestran la existencia de un desfase temporal entre el riesgo climático y riesgo económico, teniendo este último un periodo de duración más extenso en el tiempo. También, revelan que la intensidad, frecuencia y duración son tres atributos cruciales que determinan el impacto económico de la sequía. La estrategia de reducción de la carga ganadera permite aminorar el riesgo, pero conlleva una disminución en el margen bruto de la explotación. La segunda aplicación está dedicada a la elaboración de mapas de vulnerabilidad a la sequia en pastos de Chile. Para ello, se propone y desarrolla un índice de riesgo económico (IRESP) sencillo de interpretar y replicable, que integra factores de riesgo y estrategias de adaptación para obtener una medida del Valor en Riesgo, es decir, la máxima pérdida esperada en un año con un nivel de significación del 5%.La representación espacial del IRESP pone en evidencia patrones espaciales y diferencias significativas en la vulnerabilidad a la sequía a lo largo de Chile. Además, refleja que la vulnerabilidad no siempre esta correlacionada con el riesgo climático y demuestra la importancia de considerar las estrategias de adaptación. Las medidas de autocorrelación espacial revelan que el riesgo sistémico es considerablemente mayor en el sur que en el resto de zonas. Los resultados demuestran que el IRESP transmite información pertinente y, que los mapas de vulnerabilidad pueden ser una herramienta útil en el diseño de políticas y toma de decisiones para la gestión del riesgo de sequía. La tercera aplicación evalúa el potencial de un seguro indexado para sequía en pastos en la región de Coquimbo en Chile. Para lo cual, se desarrolla un modelo estocástico para estimar la prima actuarialmente justa del seguro y se proponen y evalúan pautas alternativas para mejorar el diseño del contrato. Se aborda el riesgo base, el principal problema de los seguros indexados identificado en la literatura y, que está referido a la correlación imperfecta del índice con las pérdidas de la explotación. Para ello, se sigue un enfoque bayesiano que permite evaluar el impacto en el riesgo base de las pautas de diseño propuestas: i) una zonificación por clúster que considera aspectos espacio-temporales, ii) un período de garantía acotado a los ciclos fenológicos del pasto y iii) umbral de garantía. Los resultados muestran que tanto la zonificación como el periodo de garantía reducen el riesgo base considerablemente. Sin embargo, el umbral de garantía tiene un efecto ambiguo sobre el riesgo base. Por otra parte, la zonificación por clúster contribuye a aminorar el riesgo sistémico que enfrentan las aseguradoras. Estos resultados han puesto de manifiesto que un buen diseño de contrato puede tener un doble dividendo, por un lado aumentar su utilidad y, por otro, reducir el coste del seguro. Un diseño de contrato eficiente junto con los avances en la teledetección y un adecuado marco institucional son los pilares básicos para el buen funcionamiento de un programa de seguro. Las nuevas tecnologías ofrecen un importante potencial para la innovación en la gestión del riesgo climático. Los avances en este campo pueden proporcionar importantes beneficios sociales en los países en desarrollo y regiones vulnerables, donde las herramientas para gestionar eficazmente los riesgos sistémicos como la sequía pueden ser de gran ayuda para el desarrollo. The vulnerability of grazing livestock systems highlights the need for tools to assess and mitigate the adverse impact of drought. The recent and rapid progress in remote sensing has awakened an interest for tapping into potential applications, triggering intensive efforts to develop innovations in a number of spheres. One of these areas is climate risk management, where the use of vegetation indices facilitates assessment of drought. This research analyzes drought impacts and evaluates the potential of new technologies such as remote sensing to manage drought risk in extensive livestock systems. Three essays in drought risk management are developed to: (i) assess the economic impact of drought on a livestock farm in the Andalusian Dehesa, (ii) build drought vulnerability maps in Chilean grazing lands, and (iii) design and evaluate the potential of an index insurance policy to address the risk of drought in grazing lands in Coquimbo, Chile. In the first essay, a dynamic and stochastic farm model is designed combining climate, agronomic, socio-economic and ecological aspects to assess drought risk. The model is developed to simulate a representative livestock farm in the Dehesa of Andalusia for the time period 1999-2010. Burn analysis and MonteCarlo simulation methods are used to identify the significance of various risk sources at the farm. Most notably, early summer and early winter are identified as periods of peak risk. Moreover, there is a significant time lag between climate and economic risk and this later last longer than the former. It is shown that intensity, frequency and duration of the drought are three crucial attributes that shape the economic impact of drought. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the sustainability of farm management strategies and demonstrates that lowering the stocking rate reduces farmer exposure to drought risk but entails a reduction in the expected gross margin. The second essay, mapping drought vulnerability in Chilean grazing lands, proposes and builds an index of economic risk (IRESP) that is replicable and simple to interpret. This methodology integrates risk factors and adaptation strategies to deliver information on Value at Risk, maximum expected losses at 5% significance level. Mapping IRESP provides evidence about spatial patterns and significant differences in drought vulnerability across Chilean grazing lands. Spatial autocorrelation measures reveal that systemic risk is considerably larger in the South as compared to Northern or Central Regions. Furthermore, it is shown that vulnerability is not necessarily correlated with climate risk and that adaptation strategies do matter. These results show that IRESP conveys relevant information and that vulnerability maps may be useful tools to assess policy design and decision-making in drought risk management. The third essay develops a stochastic model to estimate the actuarially fair premium and evaluates the potential of an indexed insurance policy to manage drought risk in Coquimbo, a relevant livestock farming region of Chile. Basis risk refers to the imperfect correlation of the index and farmer loses and is identified in the literature as a main limitation of index insurance. A Bayesian approach is proposed to assess the impact on basis risk of alternative guidelines in contract design: i) A cluster zoning that considers space-time aspects, ii) A guarantee period bounded to fit phenological cycles, and iii) the triggering index threshold. Results show that both the proposed zoning and guarantee period considerably reduces basis risk. However, the triggering index threshold has an ambiguous effect on basis risk. On the other hand, cluster zoning contributes to ameliorate systemic risk faced by the insurer. These results highlighted that adequate contract design is important and may result in double dividend. On the one hand, increasing farmers’ utility and, secondly, reducing the cost of insurance. An efficient contract design coupled with advances in remote sensing and an appropriate institutional framework are the basis for an efficient operation of an insurance program. The new technologies offer significant potential for innovation in climate risk managements. Progress in this field is capturing increasing attention and may provide important social gains in developing countries and vulnerable regions where the tools to efficiently manage systemic risks, such as drought, may be a means to foster development.
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This dissertation analyses the Brazilian Supreme Court’s judgement in the Non-compliance Action of the Fundamental Precept 132/RJ and in the Direct Action of Unconstitutionality 4277/DF, which created in the country the same-sex civil union. In This decision, the STF interpreted according to the constitution Article 1.723 of the Civil Code, invoking several fundamentals reaffirmed in the Constitution. From all these laws invoked by the Supreme Court to support the pretorian creation, the content of consitutional Law regarding equality is the only that corresponds, and it is sufficient to evidence the necessity of the creation, by legislator, of the institute for civil rights, since the Constitution forbids distinctions that is not expressly provided for in the Constitution (Art. 3º, IV, of Federal Constitution). In this way, Article 226, § 3º is not an exception capable of satisfying the condition of the consitutional foresight because although it protect, according its content only the civil union “between the man and the woman”, it is not able to forbid the creation, by legislator, of another kinds of families, including the same-sex civil union. As such, the reasoning, now legitimate according to the legislator, is not support the creation of institute by Constitutional Court, because the Court may enforce the Law, interpreting in the purviews allowed by the legal text and its constitutionality. In regard to the civil union of individuos of the same sex, the Court could not deduce that such union was implied by Law, like the interpretation according to the Constitution given by judges, on grounds of semantic purviews of the words man and woman, existents in both articles. The Court could not created it either, exceeding the legal system role. So, upon the institute creation, the STF, exceeded two limits: the interpretation and Law enforcement.
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Once thought to be predominantly the domain of cortex, multisensory integration has now been found at numerous sub-cortical locations in the auditory pathway. Prominent ascending and descending connection within the pathway suggest that the system may utilize non-auditory activity to help filter incoming sounds as they first enter the ear. Active mechanisms in the periphery, particularly the outer hair cells (OHCs) of the cochlea and middle ear muscles (MEMs), are capable of modulating the sensitivity of other peripheral mechanisms involved in the transduction of sound into the system. Through indirect mechanical coupling of the OHCs and MEMs to the eardrum, motion of these mechanisms can be recorded as acoustic signals in the ear canal. Here, we utilize this recording technique to describe three different experiments that demonstrate novel multisensory interactions occurring at the level of the eardrum. 1) In the first experiment, measurements in humans and monkeys performing a saccadic eye movement task to visual targets indicate that the eardrum oscillates in conjunction with eye movements. The amplitude and phase of the eardrum movement, which we dub the Oscillatory Saccadic Eardrum Associated Response or OSEAR, depended on the direction and horizontal amplitude of the saccade and occurred in the absence of any externally delivered sounds. 2) For the second experiment, we use an audiovisual cueing task to demonstrate a dynamic change to pressure levels in the ear when a sound is expected versus when one is not. Specifically, we observe a drop in frequency power and variability from 0.1 to 4kHz around the time when the sound is expected to occur in contract to a slight increase in power at both lower and higher frequencies. 3) For the third experiment, we show that seeing a speaker say a syllable that is incongruent with the accompanying audio can alter the response patterns of the auditory periphery, particularly during the most relevant moments in the speech stream. These visually influenced changes may contribute to the altered percept of the speech sound. Collectively, we presume that these findings represent the combined effect of OHCs and MEMs acting in tandem in response to various non-auditory signals in order to manipulate the receptive properties of the auditory system. These influences may have a profound, and previously unrecognized, impact on how the auditory system processes sounds from initial sensory transduction all the way to perception and behavior. Moreover, we demonstrate that the entire auditory system is, fundamentally, a multisensory system.